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COLLEGE LECTURES 



ON 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY; 



WITH COMPLETE SETS OF 



CAMBRIDGE, DUBLIN, AND DURHAM UNIVERSITY 
EXAMINATION PAPERS. 



BY THE 



EET. WILLIAM BATES, M.A 

FELLOW, LECTURER, AND HEBREW LECTURER OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, 
CAMBRIDGE. 



LONDON: 

JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. 



M.DCCC.XLIV. 



PREFACE 



The following Lectures on Ecclesiastical History were 
chiefly delivered to the Students of this College, at the 
request of the Rev. James Hildyard, the Senior Tutor, 
in the Lent Term of the present year. The catechetical 
form was adopted as a convenient mode of breaking the 
subject into distinct parts, and of allowing time for notes 
to be taken. I am not aware of any such plan having 
been previously followed ; but, from what I have learnt, I 
am led to believe that it has given satisfaction, and an- 
swered the expectation I had formed of at least engaging 
the attention of all classes of students. The adoption of 
this system has necessarily affected the style of compo- 
sition, and rendered it less inviting to the general reader 
than it might otherwise have been made. 

It may be interesting to those who are unacquainted 
with the plan of examination now adopted by this Uni- 
versity, to state, that on and after January, 1846, " The 
History of the Christian Church from its origin to the 
assembling of the Council of Nice, and the History of 
the English Reformation," will form a portion of the 
Examination for the Ordinary Bachelor of Arts' Degree, 
and " that the Questionists who are Candidates for 
Honours will be required to attend, with the other Ques- 
tionists, the Examination in Paley's Moral Philosophy, 
the New Testament and Ecclesiastical History, appointed 
to take place on the first Monday in the Lent Term 
and on the following day. That the names of all such 
Questionists, Candidates for Honours, as shall in the judg- 

a — 2 



/ 



11 PREFACE. 

ment of the Examiners, have passed their examination 
in these subjects with credit, (will) be published, in 
alphabetical order, by the Proctors, in the Senate-House, 
upon the day of the Bachelor of Arts' Commencement ;" 
and " that in the first or second week of the Michaelmas 
Term of each year, there is an Examination in the Greek 
Testament, assigned portions of the Early Fathers, Ec- 
clesiastical History, the Articles of Religion, and the 
Liturgy of the Church of England ; which Examination 
is open to all Students, who, having at any time been 
admitted ad respondendum qucestioni, in conformity with 
the regulations, shall present themselves to be examined ;" 
and also that " the names of those Students, who have 
passed their Examination to the satisfaction of the Ex- 
aminers, are published in alphabetical order, and regis- 
tered in the usual manner. " 

A very complete set of Examination Papers, with the 
view of assisting the more advanced Students in directing 
their reading, is subjoined, and for express permission to 
publish them I am indebted to the courtesy of the autho- 
rities and examiners of the three Universities. 

None, I am sure, can be more sensible of the 
deficiencies of these Lectures than myself; but I trust 
that, taking the volume as a whole, no Student will close 
it without having derived some benefit from its perusal. 

I beg to apologize for the admission of a few, but, 
I hope, not important errors, into which my inexperience 
in correcting the press has betrayed me. 

Christ's College, Cambridge, 
September 10, 1844. 



CONTENTS. 



LITERATURE OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

PAGE 

Hegesippus, account of his life and writings 1 

Julius Africanus, the Chronicle of 2 

Eusebius, his life and works 2 

Jerom — Rufinus — Sulpicius Severus 4 

Paulus Orosius — Philip of Side — Philostorgius 4 

Socrates — Sozomen — Theodoret — Theodorus Lector 5 

Evagrius — Cassiodorus — St Gregory — St Isidore — Bede 6 

Magdeburg, centuries of — Baronius, annals of 6 

Godeau — Hottinger — Benedictines — Mabillon — Maimbourg — Natalis — 
Dupin — Pagi — Tillemont — Fleury — Montague — Pearson — Beve- 

ridge— Bull, &c 7 

Ecclesiastical writers from a.d. 1715 to the present time 8 



HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 

PART THE FIRST. 

FROM ITS ORIGIN TO THE ASSEMBLING OF THE COUNCIL OF 
NICE, A.D. 325. 



JUtturc I. 

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH AND THE LIVES OF THE APOSTLES. 

Periods between which the Church originated — Dr Burton's dates for the 

crucifixion and the conversion of St Paul 9 

First year of the Church — St Paul at Antioch — at Jerusalem 10 

St Paul at the Council of Jerusalem — at Rome 11 

St Paul, his travels — his martyrdom 12 

St Peter had not visited Rome before St Paul's arrival — no authority for 
supposing St Peter to have been bishop of Rome for a long period — 
when he might have first visited Rome — St Peter's subsequent history 13 

St John at Rome — his subsequent history 14 

Passages of ancient authors relating to the Apostles — Clemens Romanus 

— Eusebius — Tertullian — Jerom — Irenasus, &c 15 



VI CONTENTS. 

Eertur* II. 

ON THE EARLY CHURCHES AND THEIR BISHOrS. 

PAGE 

James, the Lord's brother — proofs of his being bishop of Jerusalem 17 

Symeon, second bishop of Jerusalem— his death — Justus succeeds — twelve 

bishops in succession — first gentilebishop — his successors until a. d. 339 19 

Early history of the Church of Antioch — Evodius its first bishop 20 

Ignatius, second bishop of Antioch — seven churches of Asia 21 

Churches at Athens and Corinth — their history . 22 

Early history and government of the Church of Rome 23 

Bishops of Rome down to a. d. 336 — their history 24 

Early Church of Alexandria and its bishops to a.d. 326 25 

%ttt\\Xt III. 

THE PERSECUTIONS OF THE EARLY CHURCH TO THE YEAR 325. 

Cicero and Livy shew that Roman polytheism was intolerant — similar 

testimony of Valerius Maximus and Dio Cassius 26 

Tiberius favourable to Christ — the ten persecutions 27 

Nero, Domitian, and other persecuting Emperors 28 

Roman laws affecting Christians — Trajan and Pliny — Tertullian 29 

Serenus Granianus and Adrian — Antoninus persecutes the Christians 30 

Persecutions of Marcus Aurelius, Severus, Decius, and others. 31 

Decian persecution — martyrs — Diocletian 32 

Treatment of Christians from Diocletian to the Council of Nice 33 

JLuUxxz IV. 

ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS AND THEIR WRITINGS. 

Account of Clemens Romanus and his writings 35 

Ignatius, his life, martyrdom, and Epistles 38 

Polycarp, his martyrdom, and extant Epistle 40 

Barnabas, some account of his Epistle 41 

Shepherd of Hermas, and its author.... 42 

lUcture V. 

THE APOLOGIES OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 

Quadratus and Aristides— Justin Martyr, his life and works.. 44 

Athenagoras, his apologies and life 47 

Tertullian, his life, and various writings 48 

Melito, bishop of Sardis, life and works 50 

Apologies of Apollinarius, Miltiades and Minucius Felix 51 



CONTENTS. Vll 



Urcture VI. 

ON THE WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 

PAGE 

Tatian and his works, particulars relating to 52 

Dionysius of Corinth—Theophilus of Antioch 53 

Irenanxs, account of his life and works 54 

Clemens Alexandrinus, life and writings of 55 

Hermias — Cyprian and his works 57 

Arnobius — account of Origen and his works 59 

Gregory Thaumaturgus — Dionysius of Alexandria 60 

Lactantius, works of — works against Christians — Crescens 61 



iltcture vii. 

HISTORY OF THE JEWS FROM THE DEATH OF HEROD TO THE ENTIRE 
DISPERSION OF THE NATION. 

Herod the Great and his sons — Herod Agrippa 1 62 

Procurators of Judaea from a. d. 44 to 72 63 

Life of the last Jewish king — Jews from Titus to Adrian 64 

Condition of the Jews subsequent to the reign of Adrian 65 



%ttt\XXt VIII. 
ON THE COUNCILS AND CONTROVERSIES OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 

Apostolic synods, objects of— Council of Jerusalem 66 

Easter, controversy concerning — Polycarp — Victor 67 

Controversies of the third century — concerning Origen 68 

Novatian schism, account of its nature and origin 69 

Heretical baptism, controversy concerning 70 

Paul of Samosata, councils against — Millennium 71 

Donatists, their origin and subsequent history 72 

ULntuxz IX. 

THE HERESIES AND HERETICS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 

Heresy, meaning and definition of — how applied by different writers 74 

Errors mentioned in scripture — Mosheim and Burton on early heresies 75 

Early Fathers on the origin of heresy — Gnosticism — Simon Magus 76 

Nicolaitans — Nazarenes — Cerinthians — Gnostic iEons 77 

Alexandrian Gnostics — Basilides — Valentinus — Carpocrates 78 

Asiatic Gnostics— Saturn inus—Bardesanes — Cerdon — Marcion 79 

Montanus, life and doctrine of 80 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Alogi — heresies respecting the nature of Christ 81 

Praxeas, Theodotus, Artemon — Noetus, Beryllus, Sabellius 82 

Paul of Samosata modifies Sabellianism 83 

Manes, his life and death— doctrines of the Manicheans 84 

Eeciure X. 

ON THE CHURCH AND ITS ATTRIBUTES. 

Church, true notion of — ecclesia, its derivation and meaning 86 

Church, one, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic 87 

Institution and doctrine of the Church is Catholic 88 

Who are members of the Holy Catholic Church 89 

Church, visible and invisible — opinion of Bishop, Butler 90 

Only one Catholic Church — no salvation in any other 91 

Utttxttt XI. 

ON THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. 

Church government whilst our Saviour was on earth 92 

Apostolic power conferred on the Apostles at three periods 92 

Our Saviour entrusted equal authority to all the Apostles 93 

Distinction of ministers in Apostolic times not to be expected 93 

Ministers of the Churches of Jerusalem and Antioch 94 

Titus and Timothy — the seven angels — bishops in Asia 95 

Clemens Romanus, Ignatius, Ireneeus, Cyprian, on bishops, &c 96 

Scripture and ancient writers prove that bishops are from God 97 

Hooker and Pearson on Church government 97 

Opinions on bishops, presbyters, and deacons — Mosheim 98 

Mosheim's account of deacons refuted 99 

Multitude had no authority in the primitive Church 100 

Origin of dioceses, provinces, and parishes 100 

Privileges of patriarchs and metropolitans 101 

The assemblies of the early Christians, manner of conducting — Agapae... 102 

Catechumens — celebration of the eucharist 103 

Baptism — rites and ceremonies of the Ante-Nicene Church 104 

Miracles, power of working — Gibbon — Middleton 105 

Thundering legion, Bishop Kaye's account of the 106 

Secret discipline — Apostolic constitutions and canons 107 

Constantine, his life, sincerity, and manner of his conversion 108 

Constantine regulates the affairs of the Church 109 



CONTENTS. IX 

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 

PART THE SECOND. 

FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE COUNCIL OF NICE TO THE 
COMMENCEMENT OF THE REFORMATION. 



Escturt I. 

ON THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 

PAGE 

Arius, his heresy, his dispute with the bishop of Alexandria 110 

Arianism, its distinctive mark — Arius's defence — goes into Palestine — 

his reception — Hosius sent into Egypt to settle the dispute Ill 

Nice, council of — representatives from Rome — course pursued by the 

Arians — the orthodox decree — the question in dispute 112 

Constantine — Arians submit — subsequent history of Arius 113 

Meletian schism — life of Athanasius — council of Sardica 114 

Roman emperors from Constantine to a.d. 400 — heretics from a.d. 325 

to 327 115 

Eusebian heretics, proceedings of, from a.d. 337 to 350 116 

Semi-arians, creed of — classes of — councils against from a. d. 350 to 361 117 

Julian, Jovian, Valentinian, &c, state of Christianity under 118 

Apollinaris, Photinus, and Macedonius, heresies of 119 

(Ecumenical council, the second — its decrees — adds to Nicene Creed 120 

Arianism amongst the Barbarians — its extinction 121 

Senate recognizes Christianity — Priscillianists — Aridseans, &c 122 

Christianity spreads — embraced by whole nations — persecutions 123 



Hcttuxc II. 

THE OECUMENICAL COUNCILS OF EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND 

CONSTANTINOPLE. 

Nestorian controversy, its origin and promulgation 124 

Nestorius condemned at the third general council at Ephesus 125 

Ephesus, council of — history of Nestorianism and Pelagianism 126 

Pelagianism, its doctrines — contrary decisions against 127 

Eutyches, history of — fourth general council at Chalcedon — Hooker 128 

Purport of two canons relating to the sees of Rome and Constantinople ... 129 

Bishop of Rome, canons relating to his jurisdiction — Sardica 130 

Canons of council of Sardica — appellate jurisdiction of the see of Rome... 161 

Extension of the bishop of Rome's jurisdiction over Italy, Illyria, &c. ... 132 



CONTENTS. 






Eectttre ill. 

ON THE GENERAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM THE COUNCIL 
OF CHALCEDON TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CONTROVERSY 
CONCERNING THE WORSHIP OF IMAGES, A. D. 451—726. 

PAGE 

Paganism suppressed — history of Monophysites 134 

The Henoticon — Peter the Fuller — Acephali — Monophysites 135 

Disputes between the patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople — heretics... 136 

" The Three Chapters" — Justinian — Theodore — Mennas 137 

The fifth general council — Vigilius — history of Monophysites 138 

Roman bishops subject to German princes — Mosheim on the patriarchs... 139 

Laurentius and Symmachus — arrogance of the bishops of Rome ■ 140 

Patriarch of Constantinople oecumenical bishop — Monothelites — Ecthesis 141 
The Type — sixth general council — Quinisextum — fate of Monothelitism 142 

Church in Italy in the seventh century — tenets of Monothelites 143 

Clovis king of the Franks — Remigius bishop of Rheims 144 

3Ltttuvt IV. 

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 

Catechetical school of Alexandria — its masters and teachers 145 

St Paul's reserve in teaching — disciplina arcani 146 

Philosophy and Eclecticism of Alexandrine school — Neologism 147 

School of Antioch — Lucian — Judaizing sects 147 

Pistis and Gnosis of the Alexandrine school 148 

Origenistic school — Heraclas — Demetrius — Millennium 149 

St Jerom and Rufinus — errors of Origen 150 

St Cyril of Jerusalem — St Basil the Great 151 

Gregory Nazianzen and Nyssen, lives and works of 152 

St Ambrose, his life, works, and opinions ..... 153 

St Chrysostom and St Augustine, lives and works of 154 

Utttuxz V. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE ICONOCLASTIC AND 
PHOTIAN CONTROVERSIES TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII, 1056. 

Image-worship — Leo the Isaurian — Constantine Copronymus 155 

The seventh general council — Charlemagne — Caroline Books 156 

Papal power in Germany — Pepin — Paulicians — Lombards 157 

Popes become temporal princes — Charlemagne 158 

Excommunication — procession of the Holy Ghost — Adoptionists 159 

Paschasius Radbertus — Godeschalcus — Rabanus Maurus — predestination ICO 

Photian controversy — Pseudo-Isidorian decretals. 161 

Donation of Constantine — mode of electing the Popes 162 

College of cardinals— Hildebrand — Robert Guiscard 163 

Gregory VII., his views, and disputes with Henry IV 164 



CONTENTS. Xi 

iUctur* VI. 

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY TO 
THE REFORMATION, A. D. 1085—1515. 

PA G E 

The Popes recover their ascendency— Rodolph— Urban II Henry IV.. 106 

Pascal II — investitures — schisms with regard to the Popes 167 

Adrian IV., his contest with Frederic I Pope Alexander III 168 

Papal privileges— college of cardinals— eastern and western schism 169 

Papal power at its height, a. d. 1200— Pope Innocent III 170 

The twelfth general council, a.d. 1215— councils at Lyons, a.d. 1254 ... 171 

The Jubilee, history of— origin and progress of the Inquisition 172 

Contest between Pope Boniface (a. d. 1294-1303) and Philip the Fair... 173 

Papal residence transferred to and from Avignon 174 

Great schism in the "Western Church 175 

Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basil 176 

Acts of the council of Basil — council of Ferrara 177 

Gallican and Roman Churches — Pragmatic sanction — Concordat 178 



HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 

PART THE THIRD. 

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH. 



Etcturs I. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 

Reasons for supposing that St Paul visited Britain 179 

Christianity introduced into Britain at an early period 179 

Bede's account of the conversion of Britain — British martyrs 180 

Constantius Chlorus — early prosperity of the British Church 181 

Pelagianism in Britain — Germanus and Lucus 182 

Saxons nearly extinguish Christianity in Britain — Fastidius — St Ninian.. 183 

St Patrick in Ireland, and St Columba in Ireland 184 

British Christians in the sixth century — conversion of Saxons 185 

St Augustine arrives in England — the British Church 186 

Laurentius — Christianity introduced into Northumbria 187 

Paulinus at York— Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, converted 188 

Aidan, Oswald, Oswy — council of Whitby — the British Church 189 

Controversy concerning Easter — Britains not Quartodecimans — Wilfrid.. 190 

Table of the conversions, councils, and archbishops of the early Saxons... 191 



Xll CONTENTS. 



UtttUXZ II. 



ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH FROM THE AR- 
RIVAL OF THEODORE TO THE TIME OF DUNSTAN, A.D. 669-928. 

PAGE 

Canterbury the head of the English Church— regulations of Theodore ... 192 

Synod of Hatfield— Adrian— St Hilda — religious houses , 193 

John of Beverley— code of Tna—Alcuin— Saxon scholars 194 

Early history of the see of York— Adrian— Aldhelm— Saxon literature... 195 

Egbert, Albert, Alcuin, and the Saxon school at York 196 

Lichfield — councils of Cloveshoo and Calcuith 197 

Payments to the Roman see — council of Celychyth — Alcuin 198 

Egbert becomes king of England — regulations of the Saxon Church 199 

Irruptions of the Danes — destruction of the monasteries 200 

King Alfred, his life and works — restoration of learning 201 

John Scotus — tenets of Paschasius — table of Saxon kings 202 

Odo and Dunstan — contest between the seculars and the monks 203 

Dunstan establishes the monks — his miracles 204 

Utttutt III. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND ITS -DOCTRINES 
FROM DUNSTAN TO THE CONQUEST, A.D. 928—1066. 

Life of Dunstan — dissensions in the Church of England 205 

Ecclesiastical regulations — Elfric and his works 206 

Edward the Confessor — Trinoda Necessitas — Scriptures — transubstan- 

tiation 2O7 

Use of solitary masses, images, relics, and pilgrimages, in the English 

Church 208 

Whether the English Church believed in purgatory, and prayers for the 

dead 209 

Recapitulation of arguments to prove that the early English Church was 

(1) a part of the Catholic Church; (2) that it existed before the 

arrival of St Augustine; (3) that Christianity does not appear to 

have come from Rome to England 209 

On the independence and rights of Metropolitans 210 

The Popes obtained no peculiar rights over the Church of England by 

the mission of St Augustine — views of Gregory — Monks of Bangor... 211 

lecture IV. 

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE 
PREACHING OF WICKLIFFE, A.D. 1066—1356. 

Chronological Table of the Kings of England and Archbishops of Can- 
terbury — the Conqueror's relations with the Pope— his treatment of 
the Clergy 213 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

PAGE 

The Pope's legate first received in England — treatment of the native 
clergy by the Normans — service-books — ecclesiastical courts and 

subdivisions under William 1 214 

Rufus and his treatment of the Church — the question of investitures 215 

Urban II. and Henry I. — Anselm enforces celibacy— -Welsh Church be- 
comes dependent upon Canterbury— bishopric of Ely 216 

Ecclesiastical affairs under Stephen — Thomas a Becket — Constitutions of 

Clarendon 217 

First persecution for heresy — regulations of Henry II. — Richard I. ad- 
vances the Papal power — Papal exactions — Papal power at its height 218 

Contests of the Popes and King John — the Charter 219 

Grossteste — Hume on the reign of Henry III — statutes of Mortmain 220 

Edward I. attacks the Church property — foreign ecclesiastical orders — 
legislative acts relating to the Church from Edward I. to Wickliffe, 

a.d. 1272—1356 221 

"The Complaint of the Ploughman" 222 

Ewtuw V. 

THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM WICKLIFFE TO THE REIGN OF 
HENRY VIII. A.D. 1356—1509. 

Mosheim on the Waldenses — a different account — Peter Waldo 223 

"La Nobla Lecon" — doctrines of the Vaudois brought to England 224 

Bradwardine — Fitzralph — life of Wickliffe 225 

Wickliffe, errors of — origin of Lollards — statutes of praemunire 226 

Lollards in the reign of Henry IV. — Lord Cobham 227 

Reasons for persecuting the Lollards — Bishop Pococke opposes the Pope 228 
Council of Basil— state of religion under Edward IV., V., Richard III., 

and Henry VII 229 

Rise and fall of Papal power from William I. to Henry VIII 229 

Monastic orders in England 230 

Regular canons — Monastic mendicant orders 231 

Orders of Nuns — Knights Templars and Hospitallers 232 

Priories dissolved previous to the reign of Henry VIII 233 

ILtttUXZ VI. 

THE HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY UNTIL THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RELIGIOUS PEACE, A.D. 1555. 

Early life of Luther— the jubilee— indulgences 234 

Tetzel— conference of Luther and Cajetan— ( write Miltitz for Millitz) ... 235 

Leo X. excommunicates Luther — Diet of Worms 236 

Contest between Luther and Zwingle on the sacrament— the Popes 237 

Frederic of Saxony— Melancthon— Diets of Spires— Protestants 238 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Conference at Marpurg— Articles of Torgaw— confession of Augsburg ... 239 
Charles V. and Protestants — Articles of Smalcald — General History, 

a.d. 1536—46 240 

Death of Luther — Formula ad interim — Adiaphoristic controversy 241 

Council of Trent — Treaty of Passaw — Emperor and Maurice of Saxony... 242 

3Uttur* VII. 

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF 
HENRY VIII. A. D. 1509—1547. 
Archbishop Warham — life of Wolsey — Hunne — unpopularity of the 

clergy 244 

Works of Henry VIII. and Luther — Queen Catherine and the divorce ... 245 
Dispensation of the Pope — reasons for the divdrce — opinions in England 246 
Trial of the divorce in England — avocation of the suit to Rome — Uni- 
versities 247 

Early life of Cranmer — Henry VIII. declared the supreme head of the 

Church 248 

Cranmer's consecration and oaths — marriage of Anne Boleyn 249 

Rupture between the Pope and Henry VIII — Queen Catherine 250 

Frith — The Maid of Kent — emancipation of the English Church 251 

Supremacy — Liber Regis — Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More 252 

Independence of the English Church — Cromwell — dissolution of the 

monasteries 253 

English Primer — substance of the English Articles of Religion 254 

The Six Articles — penalties — rebellions consequent on the dissolutions ... 255 

Cranmer's Bible— Tyndale — numbers of suppressed houses 256 

Translations of the Bible — doctrinal works published in the time of 
Henry VIII 257 

HuiVLXZ VIII. 

THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF 
EDWARD VI. A.D. 1547—1553. 

The government and the Reformers — Cranmer's ecclesiastical regulations 259 

Liturgy of Edward VI. — its authority — Bonner — life of Ridley 260 

Review of the Liturgy — Bucer and Peter Martyr — changes in the Liturgy 261 

Bishop Hooper and the habits 262 

Acts of parliament — reformatio legum — authority of the English Articles 263 

Cranmer's and various other Catechisms — taxes of the Clergy 264 

Edward I. made several alterations in the affairs of the Church — con- 
vocation 265 

Act of submission to Henry VIII. — clergy cease to tax themselves under 
Charles II 266 



CONTENTS. XV 

Hectare IX, 

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH UNDER MARY I. A. D. 1553— 1558. 

PAGE 

Mary alters the government of the Church — acts of parliament 208 

Convocations — methods by which the Reformation was abrogated 209 

Mary restores the Church property — martyrdoms of Rogers, Hooper, 

Ridley, Latimer 270 

Disputations at Oxford — Cranmer's recantations 271 

Martyrdoms under Mary— Cranmer — Ecclesiastics leave England 272 

Troubles at Francfort— Knox at Geneva 273 

Hectare X. 

THE ENGLISH CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH, 
A. D. 1558—1603. 

Events consequent on the accession of Elizabeth — Acts of Parliament ... 275 

Deprivation of the bishops — life of Archbishop Parker 270 

Nag's Head controversy— alterations in the Liturgy 277 

Elizabeth's supremacy — life of Bishop Jewell 279 

History of the Articles — Homilies —Advertisements 280 

Era of separation — Puritans preach under a Papal license 281 

Cartwright, life of— prophesyings 282 

Grindal — Papal offers of reconciliation to Elizabeth 283 

Papists separate from the Church — Lambeth Articles 282 

Laws against traitorous Papists— Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity 283 



lecture XI. 

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH DURING THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. 
A. D. 1603—1625, AND CHARLES I. A. D. 1625-1649, WITH A SKETCH OF 
THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND, A. D. 
1649. 

The Millenary Petition 280 

Answer of James — Hampton conference —Articles 287 

Changes in the Liturgy — History of the canons — archbishops — Whitgift 

— Bancroft— Abbot — Laud — conformity enforced 287 

Four parties of Puritans — Laud — Book of Sports — Gunpowder Plot 289 

Synod of Dort — early part of the reign of Charles 1 290 

Star-Chamber and High Commission 291 

Ecclesiastical affairs in Scotland down to 1038 291—297 

Church of Ireland — independent of the Popes — subject to the Popes 297 

Henry II. becomes Lord of Ireland — opinions of Ussher and Leland , 298 



XVI CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth, and the Irish Church... 299 
Bishop Mant's history of the Irish Church under Edward VI. and Eliza- 
beth — Irish and English articles and canons 300 

Ussher's modified episcopacy 301 

History of the English Church from 1643—1649 302 



Hzttuvt xii. 

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTO- 
RATION OF CHARLES II. A. D. 1660, WITH BRIEF NOTICES OF OTHER 
CHURCHES. 

The Church restored — meeting at Sion-house — Savoy conference 304 

Changes in the Scotch and Irish Churches at "the Restoration 305 

Corporation Act — Act of Uniformity — causes of the dethronement of 

James II 307 

Toleration Act — the bishops — Non-jurors— The Comprehension 308 

Persecution of the Church of Scotland — Presbyterians 309 

Church of Scotland under Queen Anne 310 

Church of Scotland tolerated, a. d. 1788 311 

Restrictions on the Scotch Church— The Church in North America 313 

The Jesuits — Greek Christians — Monophysites — Lutherans 314 

Reformed Protestants — Zwingle's life and doctrines 315 

Calvin's life, doctrines, and Church polity 316 

French Protestants — parties in the Roman Church 317 

Roman Catholic propagation of the Gospel societies 318 

Lutherans depressed — Arminians, their doctrines 319 

Bull of Unigenitus — Arians— Bangorian controversy 320 



Cambridge Examination Papers for the Crosse Scholarships ......... 321 340 

Voluntary Theological Examination — 1. Ecclesiastical History. 

2. Clemens Romanus 340 342 

Dublin University Examination Papers in Ecclesiastical History ... 343—403 
Durham University Examination Papers in Ecclesiastical History... 404—420 



LITERATURE 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 



Q. (l) Who was the earliest Historian of the 
Christian Church? What do we know of his life and 
writings ? (2) What other ancient Christian work was 
of an historical nature ? Give some account of it. (3) 
What, independent of Eusebius, are the sources of early 
Ecclesiastical History ? 

A. (l) Hegesippus: — originally a Jew, who had 
been converted to the Christian faith, and flourished 
about the year 170. "He wrote in five books an unso- 
phisticated account of the Apostolical preaching in a very 
plain style." Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, iv. 22, 
8. ii. 23. 

" Hegesippus, who was near the times of the Apostles, com- 
posed a History of the affairs of the Church from the passion 
of our Lord to his own time. And collecting together a great 
variety of matters for the benefit of his readers, he wrote five 
books in a plain and simple manner, imitating therein the style 
of those whose life he followed. He says, he came to Rome in 
the time of Anicetus, the tenth bishop after Peter, and continued 
there to the time of Eleutherius, bishop of the same city, who 
had formerly been deacon of Anicetus." St Jerom, Catalogue of 
Ecclesiastical Writers, c. 22. The work has perished, except 
some fragments preserved by Eus. E. H. and one more in Pho- 
tius. They relate to the deaths of James and Simeon the two 
first Bishops of Jerusalem, E. H. n. 23. in. 32. Domitians 
enquiry after the posterity of David, in. 19, 20. His journey 
to Rome through Corinth — the origin of heresies- — a notice of 
the Gospel of the Hebrews, and unwritten traditions of the Jews. 
Adrian's deification of his slave Antinous, iv. 22, 8. The frag- 
ment in Photius is a remark on Matt. xiii. 16. 



Z LITERATURE OF 

(2) " The Chronicle" of Julius Africanus, "in 
five books accurately written." Eus. E. H. vi. 31. " Ju- 
lius Africanus, whose five books of Chronology are extant, 
in the time of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus, suc- 
cessor of Macrinus, undertook an embassy for the restora- 
tion of Emmaus." Jerom, Cat. 63. He probably resided 
in Palestine, and flourished about a.d. 220. His Chro- 
nicle, now no longer extant in a separate form, is sup- 
posed to have been inserted in the works of later annalists. 

(3) The works of the Fathers, especially of those 
who occupied prominent positions in the Church, such as 
Irenasus, Cyprian, Athanasius, Augustine, and others; those 
of opponents and Heretics ; the acts of Synods and Coun- 
cils ; official letters of the Heads of Churches ; confessions 
of Faith ; ancient liturgies, &c. &c. 

Q. Who was the father of Ecclesiastical History ? 
Give some account of his life and historical works. 

A. Eusebius : — probably born at Cassarea in Pa- 
lestine, about a.d. 270 ; or, as some think, sooner. After 
receiving a liberal education, he was ordained a presby- 
ter. From his intimacy with the martyr Pamphilus 
during his imprisonment from the year 307 to 309, he 
obtained the surname of Pamphilus. He subsequently 
retired to Egypt, where he is falsely accused of having 
burnt incense to the gods. About a.d. 315 he became 
bishop of Caesarea. When Arius came into Palestine, 
Eusebius gave him a favourable reception, and wrote a 
letter, still extant, to his bishop Alexander of Alexandria, 
in his favour ; and at the Council of Nice, a.d. 325, where 
Arius was condemned, he declined assenting to the term 
" consubstantial," as applied to our Saviour, and although 
he afterwards complied, he appears to have discounte- 
nanced the excesses of both parties. He was present at a 
synod at Antioch, in the year 330, when the Arians un- 
justly deposed Eustathius, bishop of that see, but he firmly 
refused to be his successor. He afterwards continued to 
take part with the enemies of St Athanasius, and was 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 3 

present, a.d. 335, at a council at Tyre, which drove him 
into banishment. He died bishop of Caesar ea, about a.d. 
340. His historical works were : A Chronicle, which 
treated of the origin and history of all nations, from the 
beginning of the world to the twentieth year of Con- 
stantine. Some fragments of the original, and portions 
of Jerom's translation of it have been preserved. An 
Ecclesiastical History, in ten Books, which is the 
foundation of all our knowledge on the subject. 

u It is a collection of all the memorable things which hap- 
pened in the Church from the birth of Jesus Christ to his own 
time. He has exactly noted the succession of Bishops to the 
Sees of all the great Cities in the world ; he has given an account 
of the Ecclesiastical Writers and their books, together with the 
history of Heresies, and some remarks concerning the Jews. He 
has described the persecutions of the Martyrs, the controversies 
and disputes touching Ecclesiastical discipline. He cites ancient 
authors, and inserts long extracts from them. For the most part, 
those authors and their works have been lost since his death. In 
short, without the History of Eusebius, we should scarce have 
any knowledge, not only of the history of those first ages of the 
Church, but even of the authors who wrote at that time, and 
their works." Abridged from Dupin's History of Ecclesiastical 
Writers, Tom. 11. 

Dowling, in his work On the Study of Ecclesiastical History, 
asserts, that the Ecc. Hist, was written a.d. 324, the year pre- 
vious to the meeting of the Council of Nice, and adds : " The 
objections to the early date are capable of being answered, but 
the absence of every thing like allusion to the Arian controversy 
forms an objection to the later date (326) which really appears 
insuperable." 

The Life of Constantine was written subsequently to 
the emperor's death, a.d. 337, and although it partakes 
of the nature of a panegyric, it contains much valuable 
information on Church History during an important period. 

Q. What Ecclesiastical Historians flourished between 
the councils of Nice and Chalcedon, (l) in the Western, 
(2) in the Eastern Church? What is the character of 
their works? 

A. (l) Eusebius Hieronymus, or St Jerom, born 
of Christian parents at Stridon, a town on the borders of 

1—2 



fj LITERATURE OF 

Dalmatia and Pannonia, about a.d. 342, and ordained a 
presbyter at Antioch in 378, wrote in Latin, about the 
year 392, a " Catalogue of the Ecclesiastical Writers," 
chiefly, as he himself says, compiled from Eusebius, with a 
continuation to his own time. He also translated and con- 
tinued the " Chronicle of Eusebius." 

Rufinus, a presbyter of Aquileia in Gaul, about the 
year 400, translated the History of Eusebius into Latin, 
and continued it in two books to the year 392. The 
whole work is extant, and was much used in the West for 
many ages. 

In the translation the History is reduced to nine books, and 
is marked both for its omissions and interpolations; the con- 
tinuation is superseded by the works of subsequent authors. 
The whole work was translated into Greek by Gelasius, Bishop 
of Ceesarea, but is now lost. 

Sulpicius Severus, also a presbyter of Gaul, wrote, 
in elegant Latin, a " Sacred History," which continued the 
history of the Bible to the year 400. 

His Church History is very brief : " He saith very 
little of the Arians, but he inlargeth much upon the 
Priscillianists." Dupin. 

The work of Paulus Orosius, written about a.d. 416 
to disprove the assertion of the Pagans that Christianity 
was the cause of Rome being taken by the Goths in 410, 
is more of a civil than an Ecclesiastical History. 

(2) Philip of Side in Pamphylia, a distinguished 
Ecclesiastic of Constantinople and friend of St Chrysostom, 
wrote a " Christian History" from the creation to the year 
425. It was a voluminous work, but only one fragment 
on the succession of the Alexandrine School remains. 

Philistorgius, born in Cappadocia about a.d. 368, 
was "■ brought up in Arianism, and engaged in the Euno- 
mian party ; his work is rather a panegyric of these 
heretics, than an History." Dupin. He wrote the His- 
tory of Arianism from its rise to the year 425. Many 
valuable fragments have been preserved. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

Socrates, an advocate, hence called Scholasticus, born 
and liberally educated at Constantinople, wrote an " Eccle- 
siastical History" in seven books, which comprehends about 
133 years, from a.d. 306 to 439. He writes in a pure 
and simple style, and displays great moderation and im- 
partiality. 

Salamanes Hermias Sozomenus, a native of Pales- 
tine, educated there under the monks, and afterwards an 
advocate at Constantinople, composed in nine books a con- 
tinuation of Eusebius from the year 323 to 423. He was 
a sincere and pious man, and his work contains much in- 
formation, occasionally confirmed by documents. His tem- 
perament was enthusiastic, and he appears to have imbibed 
a taste for the practices of his early instructors. He is 
inferior to Socrates in accuracy and soundness, but excels 
him in elegance. 

Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus in Syria, was born at 
Antioch of a good family, a.d. 386, where he was the 
pupil of Chrysostom and Theodore. He wrote his Eccle- 
siastical History about a.d. 450, embracing a period from 
322 to 428. He furnishes in a pleasing style much valu- 
able information on Eastern Church affairs. His life was 
harassed from an attachment to Nestorian principles. 

Note: — "The common opinion is that Sozomen wrote to 
supply the omissions and improve upon the style of Socrates, 
and that Theodoret designed his work as a supplement to the 
labours of the other two. This opinion, however, when ex- 
amined, is found to rest entirely on conjecture. There is not, 
as far as I can discover, any direct evidence that any one of them 
was acquainted with the writings of either of the others." 
Dowling, p. 34. 

Q. Give a short sketch of the Literature of Eccle- 
siastical History from the Council of Chalcedon to the 
Reformation. 

A. Theodorus Lector, of Constantinople, wrote an 
original History, including a period from a.d. 431 to 518 ; 
it was held in great esteem by his contemporaries. He 
also drew up a compendium of the histories of Socrates, 



LITERATURE OP 



Sozomen, and Theodoret, and continued that of Socrates 
to the year 518. We have only a series of extracts from 
his works, preserved by Nicephorus Callisti. There are 
also fragments of other writers. 

Evagrius, a Syrian, an advocate at Antioch, was the 
last of the ancient Greek writers of Ecclesiastical History. 
His work, which embraces a period from the Council of 
Ephesus, a.d. 431 to 594, is extant. " Evagrius is cre- 
dulous, and perhaps prejudiced, but accurate and inqui- 
sitive." Dowling, p. 51. 

Cassiodorus, a minister of Theodoric king of the 
Goths, after retiring in the year 537 into a Calabrian 
Monastery, made a Latin digest of Socrates, Sozomen, and 
Theodoret, as an accompaniment to the Latin translation 
of Eusebius by Rufinus. From these sources, during the 
middle ages, the Western students derived their knowledge 
of ancient Ecclesiastical History, as for a thousand years 
only histories of particular periods appeared. JSTicepho- 
rus Callisti, in the early part of the 14th century 
wrote in Greek, in eighteen books, a history from the 
incarnation to the death of Phocas in 610. It was not 
until the latter part of the sixteenth century, that by the 
printing of the works of the Fathers, the acts of councils, 
and other documents, Ecclesiastical History began to be 
treated scientifically. 

Q. Three eminent writers of Church Histories flourished 
in the middle ages. Give a brief account of them. 

A. St Gregory, Bishop of Tours, (a.d. 534 — 595), 
wrote an " Ecclesiastical History of the Franks." St 
Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, (a.d. 595 — 636), com- 
posed "A Chronicle" from the creation to a.d. 614. 
Lastly, The Venerable Bede (a.d. 672 — 731) wrote 
" an Ecclesiastical History of the English." 

Q. What two remarkable works on Church History 
were composed shortly after the Reformation ? 

A. The Centuries of Magdeburg, and the 
Annals of Baronius. The former is a Protestant work, 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 7 

and brings the History down to a.d. 1400 ; the latter is 
by a Romanist, and extends to a.d. 1300. 

Q. What original writers succeeded them ? 

A. Godeau, (a.d. 1653), Bishop of Venice, was the 
first Roman Catholic writer, who treated the subject in a 
popular and personally edifying manner, and Hottinger 
of Zurich (1667) illustrated it by the application of Oriental 
learning. 

Q. Who were the leading foreign and English 
Ecclesiastical writers from a.d. 1667 to 1715? 

A. (l) The Benedictines of St Maur, and Jean 
Mabillon, were the two first authors who availed them- 
selves of the improved editions of the sources of Eccle- 
siastical History. The Jesuit Maimbourg introduced a 
flippant and popular style of writing. Natalis Alex- 
ander, in point of learning, wrote the best Roman Catholic 
general History. Dupin composed the lives of the ancient 
authors so as to form a History. Pagi supplied the 
deficiencies of Baronius. Tillemont exhausted all the 
materials of History for the first six centuries. Claude 
Eleury introduced great improvements and wrote in a 
popular style a History down to a.d. 1414. (2) In 
England, owing to her divines being engaged in Polemical 
writings, no works directly bearing on Church History 
appeared for a long period after the Reformation. Bishop 
Montague (1622 — 1640) composed the first direct work 
on the affairs of the Church. Bishop Pearson vindicated 
the genuineness of the earliest Christian works, B eve ridge 
of the primitive Canons, Bull the orthodoxy of the ante- 
Nicene writers, and Dodwell followed in their steps. The 
writings of Cave, Wharton, and Bingham, are lasting 
memorials of what Englishmen formerly accomplished. 
Burnett, Strype, Collier, Dodd, and others illustrated (or 
obscured) our own Church History, but the withering 
influence of the Revolution extinguished our School of 
Historians. (3) To return to the continent ; Jean Le 
SiEUR, Spanheim, and Basnage wrote controversial Pro- 



8 LITEKATURE OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

testant histories. They were followed by the Germans 
Kortholt, Adam Reckenberg, Ittig, and Schmid; next 
came Arnold, Thomasius, and the sceptic Jean Le Clerc. 

Q. Briefly notice the Ecclesiastical writers from a.d. 
1715 to the present time. 

A. In the French School Barbeyrac's " Morality 
of the Fathers," and Beausobre's "History of Mani- 
cheism," were the last works of eminence. Fabricius, 
Buddeus, Wolf, and others, were succeeded in Germany 
by Weismann, Mosheim, Pfaff, Baumgarten, and Walch. 
Next came Semler, Schrockh, and Henke, who were 
avowed Rationalists. The works" of Schmidt, Marhein- 
ecke, and Staudlin, are written in a better spirit. The 
History of Neander (which acknowledges the inspiration 
of the New Testament), as translated by Henry John Rose, 
is considered of very great value ; but his German notion 
of the foundation of the Church renders portions of his 
work useless to an "English Churchman." The same 
remark applies to the works of Danz, Guerike, and 
Gieseler. (The work of Gieseler has been translated 
by an American, and is a valuable collection of authorities 
extracted from the original authors). In England, Water- 
land, who died a.d. 1740, was the last of the writers of 
the old Patristical School of Divines. The subsequent 
contest with the Deists elicited no works of note except 
the "Julian" of Warburton, and the voluminous writings 
of the dissenter Lardner. The "Remarks" of the flip- 
pant Jortin, the History of the Deist Gibbon, and the 
work of the pious Milne r are severally useful as warnings 
to the student, to avoid their faults, and to pursue the safe 
path which has been opened by Bishop Kaye, Professor 
Burton, Mr Maitland, Mr Newman (in the History of 
the Arians), Mr Soames, Mr Churton, Mr Evans, Mr 
Le Bas, Mr Palmer, and lastly by the lectures of the 
learned Professor Blunt, who all furnish valuable materials 
from which some future Scholar may write a standard 
History of the Church. (Bowling) 



HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 



PART THE FIRST. 

FROM ITS ORIGIN TO THE ASSEMBLING OF THE COUNCIL 
OF NICE, A.D. 325. 



ixtbxct I. 

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH AND THE LIVES OF THE APOSTLES. 

Q. Between what two periods must the Christian 
Church have had its origin? 

A. When our Lord said, "Thou art Peter, and upon 
this rock I will build my Church," (Matt. xvi. 18), his 
Church did not exist ; but when it is related that, " the 
Lord added to the Church daily," (Acts ii. 47), his 
Church was actually in being, and must have been esta- 
blished in the interval. 

Q. What are Dr Burton's arguments for assigning 
a particular date for the crucifixion of our Lord and 
St Paul's conversion ? 

A. He assumes that the death of Herod Agrippa 
(Acts xii.) took place a.d. 44 ; that St Paul's first aposto- 
lic journey then commenced, and lasted about one year ; 
that the Council at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) was held in 46, 
which was about fourteen years after St Paul first visited 
the apostles at Jerusalem ; that as this visit took place 
three years after his conversion, these seventeen years, 
taken from 46, would give 29 as the date of his con- 
version ; but as both the periods of three and fourteen 
years might contain four incomplete years, he assumes 
them together to contain fifteen full years, and thus he 
obtains a.d. 31 as the date of these events. 

1—5 



10 ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH, AND [lECT. 

Q. Detail briefly some of the leading events which 
took place in the Church, during the first year of its 
existence, a.d. 31. 

A. St Matthias was elected and numbered with the 
Apostles, the Holy Ghost descended on them, and many 
were converted by the preaching of St Peter. St Peter 
and St John having healed a lame man, and the rulers 
being offended at St Peter's subsequent discourse, sent 
them to prison; but after being threatened, they were on 
the next day dismissed. 

At the rebuke of St Peter ^ Ananias and Sapphira 
fell down dead, The seven deacons were chosen, and 
after the persecution in which St Stephen suffered mar- 
tyrdom, the members of the Church were scattered. Philip 
baptized Simon Magus and others at Samaria, where St 
Peter and St John encountered him ; Philip also baptized 
the ^Ethiopian eunuch and visited Caesarea. St Paul was 
converted about this time, and leaving Damascus went into 
Arabia. 

Q. Give a short History of the Church from the 
conversion of St Paul to his being brought by St Barnabas 
to Antioch, (a.d. 31 — 42.) 

A. In the year 32, James, the brother of our Lord, 
became Bishop of Jerusalem, and elders were appointed. 
St Peter healed JEneas of his palsy at Lydda, raised 
Tabitha from the dead at Joppa, and converted Cornelius 
at Caesarea. Next year, a.d. 33, Saul returned to Da- 
mascus, and after visiting St Peter at Jerusalem, retired 
to Tarsus. We have no certain account of the transactions 
of the following nine years, but the churches had rest, 
and the Apostles were actively engaged in propagating the 
faith. In the year 42, St Barnabas being sent to con- 
firm the churches of Phenice, Cyprus, and Antioch, brought 
Saul from Tarsus to Antioch. 

Q. What events took place between St Paul's arrival 

at Antioch and the Council at Jerusalem ? (a. d. 42^—46.) 

A. St Barnabas and Saul for "a whole year as- 



I.] LIVES OF THE APOSTLES. 11 

sembled themselves with the Church, and taught much 
people. And the disciples were called Christians first in 
Antioch." In the year 44, the Christians at Antioch, 
during a famine, sent relief to their brethren at Jerusalem, 
by the hands of Barnabas and Saul. Agrippa slew St 
James, the brother of St John, and imprisoned St Peter, 
but he was miraculously delivered, and went for a time 
into another place. St Barnabas and Saul, accompanied 
by Mark, returned to Antioch, where they were solemnly 
appointed to preach the Gospel to the Gentiles. They 
first went to Seleucia, and crossing over to Cyprus, con- 
verted Sergius Paulus ; they then passed over to Pisidia, 
and after traversing the adjacent country returned to 
Antioch, a.d. 45. In the following year they went up 
to Jerusalem to attend a Council of the Church on the 
question of the observance of the Mosaic law by the 
Gentile converts. 

Q. Give some account of St Paul from the Council 
of Jerusalem until he left Rome, (a.d. 46 — 58.) 

A. After returning to Antioch he passed through 
Asia Minor and Macedonia to Athens and Corinth, where 
he arrived a.d. 47, and from thence wrote his two Epistles 
to the Thessalonians. In 48 he left Corinth, visited 
Jerusalem, and returned to Ephesus, where he abode two 
years. In 51 he visited Crete, left Titus there, and 
returned to Ephesus, from whence he wrote his Epistles 
to Titus and the Galatians. In 52 he wrote his first 
Epistle to the Corinthians, left Ephesus after the riot in 
the theatre, wrote his first Epistle to Timothy, traversed 
Macedonia, wrote his second Epistle to the Corinthians, 
and spent the ensuing winter at Corinth. In 53 he wrote 
his Epistle to the Romans, he then left Corinth, went up 
to Jerusalem, and was sent as a prisoner to Caesarea. In 
55 he sailed from Syria, spent the winter at Melita, and 
arrived at Rome in 56 ; from thence he wrote his Epistles 
to the Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, and the Philip- 
pians. He remained at Rome until a.d. 58. 



1 2 ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH, AND 



LECT. 



Q. In what manner is St Paul said to have spent 
the interval between his release from Rome and his mar- 
tyrdom? (a.d. 58 — 68.) 

A. He first went to Philippi in the year 58, and 
having sent from thence his Epistle to the Hebrews, 
he soon afterwards proceeded through Colossse, and other 
parts of Asia Minor, to Judaea. If he did not subse- 
quently visit Spain, as he once proposed to do, and even 
go as far as Britain, as some think, we know nothing 
whatever of his proceedings for several years. He pro- 
bably returned to Rome, a.d. 67, or a year or two 
earlier, either to succour the persecuted Church, or to 
repress the Gnostic heresy. Soon afterwards he made 
the defence spoken of in his 2nd Epistle to Timothy, 
iv. 16 ; and although he appears at that time to have 
been acquitted, there is little doubt but he was soon after- 
wards apprehended, and according to tradition, after being 
confined in the noisome Mamertime prison, situated at 
the foot of the Capitoline rock, where Onesiphorus had 
some difficulty in meeting with him, he was beheaded in 
the year 67 or 68. 

(2) The late learned Canon Tate, in his Continuous 
History of St Paul, says, in the year 63 St Paul leaves 
Rome, " intending to visit Asia first, and afterwards Mace- 
donia, takes with him Titus and Timothy, the one he sta- 
tions in Crete, the other he leaves at Ephesus ; he himself, 
via Troas, visits Philippi, writes to Timothy his first 
Epistle, and before setting out to the N. W. parts, he 
writes the Epistle to Titus, and summons him to Nico- 
polis, as the place where he means to winter. After ac- 
complishing these plans, Paul on his return takes Corinth 
in his way, passes over to Ephesus, leaves Trophimus 
sick at Miletus, and soon after arrives in Rome. There 
he is again apprehended, writes the Second Epistle to 
Timothy, and suffers martyrdom in 65 or 66". 

Q. Give reasons for supposing that St Peter had 
not visited Rome previously to St Paul's arrival. 



I.] LIVES OP THE APOSTLES. 13 

A. As St Paul, in his Epistle to the Romans, written 
from Corinth, a.d. 53, salutes a number of disciples, with- 
out mentioning St Peter ; as he expresses a desire to im- 
part to them some spiritual gift, and expressly says that 
he was careful not to build upon another man's founda- 
tion, St Peter could not have visited Rome previously 
to that time. Again, when St Paul came to Rome, a.d. 
56, he did not join St Peter, but hired a lodging, called 
the Jews together, and explained to them the doctrines 
of Christianity, which he would not have done, even if 
St Peter had only been temporarily absent from the city. 
During his stay he wrote Epistles to several Churches, 
but no allusion to St Peter escapes him. St Luke also, 
who wrote the Acts of the Apostles about this time, and 
records many particulars concerning St Peter, of less im- 
portance than a visit to the metropolis of the world, is 
equally silent as to his having ever visited Rome. 

Q. What authority is there for saying that St Peter 
was Bishop of Rome for a long period ? 

A. Eusebius in his Chronicle, says, that St Peter 
came to Rome in the second year of the Emperor Clau- 
dius, a.d. 42, and suffered martyrdom in the fourteenth 
of Nero, between which there is a space of exactly twenty- 
five years, from which it is supposed might have arisen the 
belief that he was Bishop there for that period, and in 
St Jerom's translation of the Chronicle of Eusebius, this is 
expressly affirmed to have been the fact, whereas Euse- 
bius neither in his Chronicle, or History, states that 
St Peter himself was even Bishop of Rome at all. 

Q. When might St Peter have first come to Rome ? 

A. Either between the time of St Paul's writing to 
the Philippians, and his leaving Rome, a.d. 58, or imme- 
diately after his departure. Eusebius says, that " in the 
reign of Claudius," Philo, the Jewish writer, "had fami- 
liar conversation with Peter at Rome, whilst he was pro- 
claiming the Gospel to the inhabitants of that city" (E. H. 
ii. 17), which might happen at this time. 



14 ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH, AND [lECT. 

Q. What is known of him subsequently? 

A. If the Babylon from which he dates his first 
Epistle, was situated in ^Egypt, he probably went there 
from Rome, in 58; but as the Church of Alexandria did 
not in after ages claim him as its founder, we may be 
well assured he did not visit that city. As St Paul does 
not mention him in his 2nd Epistle to Timothy, written 
from Rome at his second visit, and as St Peter undoubt- 
edly was at Rome about that time, he might have arrived 
there and joined St Paul subsequently to its being sent. 

Q. How is Domitian said to Jiave treated St John. 

A. He commanded the Proconsul of Asia to send him 
in bonds to Rome, where he was cast into a cauldron of 
boiling oil, before the Latin Gate, on the 6th of May, 
but was taken out without having received any injury. 
He afterwards banished him, a.d. 93, to the island of 
Patmos in the Archipelago, where he wrote the Revela- 
tion, and probably remained until Domitian's death in 
96. 

Q. What is known of his subsequent history ? 

A. The Emperor Nerva is said to have revoked his 
sentence, upon which he returned to Ephesus, and find- 
ing St Timothy had recently been put to death, under- 
took the charge of that Church, and the supervision of 
the neighbouring dioceses mentioned in the Revelations. 
He also wrote his Gospel and Epistles to confute the 
heretics, and is said to have died in the early part of 
the reign of Trajan, being then about 100 years old. 

Q. Quote the substance of some passages of ancient 
authors which refer to the Apostles. 

A. Note: — " Through zeal and envy, the most faithful and 
righteous pillars of the church have been persecuted, even to the 
most grievous deaths. Let us set before our eyes the holy apostles : 
Peter, by unjust envy, underwent, not one or two, but many 
sufferings ; till at last, being martyred, he went to the place of 
glory that was due unto him. For the same cause did Paul in 
like manner receive the reward of his patience. Seven times he 
was in bonds ; he was whipped, was stoned ; he preached both 



I.] LIVES OF THE APOSTLES. 15 

in the east and in the west, leaving behind him the glorious 
report of his faith ; and so, having taught the whole world right- 
eousness, and for that end travelled even to the utmost bounds of 
the west, he at last suffered martyrdom, by the command of the 
governors, and departed out of the world, and went unto his holy 
place, being become a most eminent pattern of patience unto all 
ages." {Clemens Romanus, 1 Ep. to Cor. c. 5). 

" But the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour, being 
scattered over the whole world, Thomas, according to tradition, 
received Parthia as his allotted region ; Andrew received Scythia, 
and John, Asia ; where, after continuing for some time, he died 
at Ephesus. Peter appears to have preached through Pontus, 
Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia and Asia, to the Jews that were 
scattered abroad ; who also, finally coming to Rome, was crucified 
with his head downward, having requested of himself to suffer in 
this way. Why should we speak of Paul, spreading the gospel 
of Christ from Jerusalem to Illyricum, and finally suffering mar- 
tyrdom at Rome, under Nero ? This account is given by Origen, 
in the third book of his exposition of Genesis." {Euseb. E. H. 
m. 1). 

" Come now, thou that wilt exercise thy curiosity to better 
"purpose in the business of thy salvation, go through the Apos- 
tolic Churches, in which the very seats of the Apostles, at this 
very day, preside over their own places ; in which their own 
authentic writings are read, speaking with the voice of each, 
and making the face of each present to the eye. Is Achaia near 
to thee ? thou hast Corinth. If thou art not far from Macedonia, 
thou hast Philippi, thou hast the Thessalonians. If thou canst 
travel into Asia, thou hast Ephesus. But if thou art near to 
Italy, thou hast Rome, where we also have an authority close at 
hand. What an happy Church is that ! on which the Apostles 
poured out all their doctrine, with their blood : where Peter had 
a like passion with the Lord ; where Paul hath for his crown the 
same death with John ; where the Apostle John (Baptist) was 
plunged into boiling oil, and suffered nothing, and was afterwards 
banished to an island. Let us see what she hath learned, what 
taught, what fellowship she hath had with the Churches of 
Africa likewise." (Tertullian on Pres. against Heretics, c. 36). 

" Nero led to slaughter the Apostles. Paul is said to have 
been beheaded at Rome, and Peter to have been crucified under 
him. And this account is confirmed by the fact, that the names 
of Peter and Paul still remain in the cemetries of that city even 
to this day. But likewise, a certain ecclesiastical writer, Caius 
by name, who was born about the time of Zepherinus, bishop of 
Rome, says, " If you will go to the Vatican, or to the Ostian 



16 ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH, &C. [LECT. 

road, you will find the trophies of those who have laid the foun- 
dation of this Church, and that both suffered martyrdom about 
the same time." Eusebius, E. H. ii. 26. 

Eusebius, v. 18, reports, on the authority of Apollonius, a 
writer of the second century, " that it was handed down by 
tradition, that our Lord commanded his disciples not to depart 
from Jerusalem for twelve years." 

St Jerom is the earliest waiter who says that St Peter resided 
twenty-five years at Rome, having been previously bishop of 
Antioch. 

Irenceus, adv. Hser. III. iii. 2, says, " Peter and Paul" 
founded the Church at Rome. ^ 

Poly crates, bishop of Ephesus about a.d. 190, in writing to 
Victor, bishop of Rome, says : " Philip, one of the twelve 
Apostles, sleeps in Hierapolis, and his two aged daughters .... 
rest at Ephesus." So also says Caius. See Eus. E. H. iii. 31, 
v. 24. 

Bartholomew, according to Pantamus quoted in Eus. E. H. 
v. 10, went to India. Gregory Nazianzen and Jerom affirm 
that Thomas went to India. Rufinus, x. 9, and Socrates, i. 19, 
say that St Matthew preached in ^Ethiopia. Clemens Alex., 
Stromata iv. 5, quotes Heracleo, a learned disciple of Valentinus, 
who affirms that St Matthew, Philip, Thomas, Levi, and many 
others, died natural deaths. Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, 
and Origen, mention only Peter, Paul, and James, as having 
suffered death by martyrdom, 



II.] THE EARLY CHURCHES AND THEIR BISHOPS. 17 

Ztttwtt II. 

ON THE EARLY CHURCHES AND THEIR BISHOPS. 



Q. Was James, the Lord's brother, an Apostle? 
How does Scripture indicate his position in the Church ? 

A. Nearly all authorities, both ancient and modern, 
agree in saying that he was not one of the twelve Apos- 
tles. St Paul, (Gal. ii.) writes, " I went up to Jerusalem 
to see Peter, but other of the Apostles saw I none, save 
James, the Lord's brother." 1 Cor. xv. that Christ " was 
seen of James, then of all the Apostles." St Luke, Acts 
xv. reports that after a discussion, in which St Peter took 
part, St James said " My sentence is that we trouble them 
not." From which and other passages it appears that 
though not one of the twelve, James, in the presence of 
Peter, Paul, Barnabas, Silas, and others, after Peter had 
given his advice, pronounced the sentence of the assembly 
in his own name, that it was promulgated in his own 
name, and that he was in fact the head of the Church in 
Jerusalem. 

Q. At what time was the first Bishop of Jerusalem 
appointed ? 

A. Dr Burton supposes him to have been appointed 
a.d. 32. St Paul intimates that James was in authority 
within three years of his own conversion (Gal. ii.), ■ and 
Eusebius in his Chronicle appears to place his appointment 
in the second year after the crucifixion. 

Note 1: — Papias, bishop of Hierapolis about a.d. 110, and 
according to Irenasus a hearer of St John, says that Mary the 
wife of Cleophas "was the mother of James, the Bishop and 
Apostle." Ignatius in the year 107 calls St Stephen " the Deacon 
of James." Hegesippus says, "James, the Lord's brother, who 
was surnamed of all men the Just, undertook, together with the 
Apostles, the government of the Church at Jerusalem." 

Clemens Alexandrinus : "Peter, and James, and John, after 
the resurrection of the Saviour, although they were honoured of 



18 THE EARLY CHURCHES AND [lECT. 

the Lord, did not contend for the dignity themselves, but made 
James the Just Bishop of Jerusalem." Eusebius : " James first 
received the Bishopric of the Church of Jerusalem." E. H. vii. 
19. Jerom : " Immediately after the passion of our Lord, James 
was ordained by the Apostles Bishop of Jerusalem." 

Note 2: — Many ancient writers assert that this James, and 
his brothers Joses, Simon, and Judas, were the sons of Joseph by 
a former wife. St Jerom denies this, and says he was son of 
Mary the sister of the Virgin and wife of Cleophas. Hegesippus 
declares that Cleophas was the brother of Joseph, and father of 
James ; others again make him his grandfather. The Jews 
appear to have considered James as our Saviour's own brother. 
" Is not this," said they, " the carpenter, the son of Mary, the 
brother to James, and Joses, and Juda, and of Simon ? and are 
not his sisters here with us ?" Mark vi. 3. If James was one of 
the twelve, he must have been the son of Alpheus : how could 
he then be the son of Cleophas also ? Alpheus might be his 
father, and Cleophas his grandfather, or they might not be 
different persons, because the Syriac word composed, of the same 
letters, may be pronounced Alphai or Cleophi. 

Q. (l) When did Festus die, and who succeeded 
him? (2) What event affecting the Church happened 
in the interval? 

A. (l) In the eighth year of Nero, a.d. 62, and 
was succeeded by Albinus. (2) Agrippa had then just 
appointed Ananus, son of that Annas who was concerned 
in our Saviour's crucifixion, a Sadducee, High-Priest. He 
previously to the arrival of the new governor placed James 
on an elevated part of the temple, with injunctions to ad- 
dress the people, and to declare that Jesus was not the 
Messias; but when he "answered with a loud voice, 'Why 
do ye ask me respecting Jesus the son of man? He is 
now sitting in the heavens, on the right hand of great 
power, and is about to come in the clouds of heaven'," 
he was hurled down, and while he still survived and was 
praying for his enemies, was despatched by the blow of 
a club. Eusebius, E.H. n. xxiv. gives a detailed account 
of this transaction, and quotes Clemens Alexandrinus, 
Hegesippus, and Josephus, to confirm his statements. 

Q. Who was the second Bishop of Jerusalem? 



II. J THEIR BISHOPS. 19 

Give, with dates, a sketch of the History of the Church 
during his Episcopate. 

A. Symeon, the brother of James. " It is reported 
that those of the Apostles and Disciples of our Lord, that 
were yet surviving, came together from all parts with 
those that were related to our Lord according to the flesh. 
They all unanimously declared Simeon, the son of Cleo- 
phas, of whom mention is made in the sacred volume, as 
worthy of the Episcopal seat there." Eus. E.H. in. 11. 
It is affirmed that he retired with the Church to Pella 
beyond Jordan, when Jerusalem was besieged by Titus, 
and returned with it after the war. He continued to 
govern that Church during a long period of tranquillity ; 
but about a.d. 104, when he was about 120 years old, 
certain Jews and Heretics brought him before Atticus, the 
lieutenant of Syria, when he was examined, probably by 
torture, for several days. Whether any accusation, ex- 
cept that of being a descendant of David, was brought 
against him, is uncertain ; but Atticus being violently urged 
by his accusers, caused him to be crucified. 

Q. What is known of the Church of Jerusalem after 
the martyrdom of Symeon ? 

A. That Justus succeeded him, and died in the year 
111; from that time to a.d. 135, there was a succession 
of twelve Bishops, all of the Jewish nation. Eusebius 
merely gives a catalogue of them. When the Emperor 
Adrian destroyed the city, and gave it the name of 
jJElia Capitolina, Marcus, a gentile, became its Bishop. 
The Christians probably then laid aside all their Jewish 
customs, and thus the question whether the converts ought 
to keep the Law was set at rest, so much so that the 
new Church took part with that of Rome in the Paschal 
controversy. Marcus died a.d. 161. From this time 
Eusebius gives us the names only of fifteen of its Bishops 
up to Narcissus, who nourished about 200, of whom 
some miracles are related, such as turning water into oil. 
He led a strict life, but being violently accused by his 



20 THE EARLY CHURCHES AND [lECT. 

enemies, retired from public life. He was afterwards re- 
stored, and dying at a great age, he was in 216 succeeded 
by Alexander of Cappadocia, who died in prison at Caesar ea, 
in the Decian persecution, a.d. 250. His successor, Ma- 
zabanes, is mentioned by Dionysius Alexandrinus, in his 
letter to Stephen, Bishop of Rome ; to him succeeded 
Hymenceus, who assisted in 264 and 270 at the Coun- 
cils held against Paul of Samosata, and died a.d. 297. 
Zabdas held the see for two years ; Hermon succeeded, 
and dying in 313, was followed by Macarius, who assisted 
at the Council of Nice in 325, and had the charge of pub- 
lishing its decrees in Palestine ; he^ died in 339, and was 
succeeded by Maximinus. 

Q. When was Christianity first introduced at Antioch? 

A. By the disciples who left Jerusalem on account of 
the persecution which arose after the martyrdom of St 
Stephen. 

Q. Who was the first Bishop of that Church ? When 
might he have been appointed ? How long did he con- 
tinue Bishop ? 

A. Evodius. He might have been appointed by St 
Paul and St Barnabas on their first visit in the year 43, 
or by St Paul and St Peter in 46. Eusebius adopts the 
former date, but says nothing of the time of his death, 
which is generally supposed to have taken place a.d. 70. 
The Roman Catholic writers allege that St Peter went there 
about two years after the crucifixion, and was Bishop of 
the See for seven years ; but their opinion is considered to 
be quite inconsistent with the chronology of the period, and 
the account in the New Testament. 

Q. To what do you attribute the early prosperity of 
the Church of Antioch ? 

A. To the circumstance of its being a Grecian city, 
and the residence of the Roman president of Syria, to 
whom a large part of Palestine was subject, and who 
would take care to prevent any persecution arising from 
Jewish malignity. 



II.] THEIR BISHOPS, 21 

Q. What is known of its subsequent history ? 

A. Ignatius was its second Bishop; he probably suc- 
ceeded Evodius about a.d. 70, and suffered martyrdom at 
Rome in 107. To him succeeded Heron, Cornelius, 
Heros, Theophilus, and Maximinus. Eusebius does not 
seem to have attended to their chronology, as he con- 
siders Theophilus to have died a.d. 177, whereas it ap- 
pears from his writings that he was alive in 181. Sera- 
pion came next from about 189 to 211 ; he was succeeded 
by Asclepiades, whose death Eusebius places in the year 
217. Next came Philetus and Zebinus until 238 ; next 
Babylas, who suffered martyrdom in the Decian persecu- 
tion, a.d. 250 ; then Fabius two, and Demetrius eight 
years. To him Paul of Samosata succeeded in 260 ; he 
was deposed in 272, and succeeded by Domnus, Timmus, 
and Cyrillus, who died 302 ; Tyrannus held the See until 
313, when peace was again restored to the Church. Vi- 
talis, his successor, rebuilt the Church, and assisted at 
the Councils of Antioch and Neocaisarea ; after his death 
Philogenus was raised to the See in 318 or 319, but 
Eustathius, formerly Bishop of Beraza, was elected in his 
place in 323, but he was deposed by the Arians in 330. 

Q. (l) Name the Churches which are mentioned in 
the Revelations. (2) Which were founded before the 
death of St Paul? (3) What is "known of them subse- 
quently ? 

A. (l) Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sar- 
dis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. (2) Ephesus and Lao- 
dicea. (3) Ephesus was first governed by Timothy, and 
afterwards by St John until his death. In the year 107, 
Ignatius wrote an Epistle to the Ephesians, which bears 
testimony to their piety, and the virtues of Onesimus their 
Bishop. It appears to have been the head of the Churches 
of Proconsular Asia, and at the end of the second century 
we find its Bishop Polycrates conducting the opposition to 
the encroachments of the Bishop of Rome, in the contro- 
versy about Easter. Little is known of the foundation 



22 THE EAKLY CHURCHES AND [LECT. 

and history of the other five. Polycarp was Bishop of 
Smyrna when Ignatius wrote his Epistle to that Church, 
which then appeared to he affected by heresies ; he suffered 
martyrdom, according to Pearson, in 148, to others in 166 
or 169. Melito, a learned and eloquent man, was Bishop 
of Sardis about a.d. 177. 

Note: — "Of Timothy's successors, if any man doubt, the 
council of Chalcedon will tell him : ' From blessed Timothy unto 
this present (a.d. 451), the twenty-seven Bishops that have been 
made, have been all ordained at Ephesus.' . . . . ' So did the 
Bishops of Cyprus in the third general council of Ephesus witness 
for their island/ 'Troylus,' say they, 'Sabinus, Epiphanius, and 
the most holy bishops that were before them, and all that have 
been even from the Apostles, were ordained by such as were of 
Cyprus/ " Bilson, Perpetual Government of Christ's Church. 

Q. What do we know of the Churches at Athens 
and Corinth? 

A. Christianity made but little progress at Athens, 
but we read of a succession of Bishops, beginning with 
Dionysius the Areopagite, the convert of St Paul. In 
Adrian's time the new Bishop Quadratus, after the mar- 
tyrdom of his predecessor Publius, found the Church in 
a state verging on apostacy, but he appears to have 
restored it. It appears to have flourished for some years 
afterwards. 

The Church of Corinth was early distinguished for 
a spirit of dissension and contumacy; Cephas and Apollos 
divided even the converts of St Paul, and about 50 years 
afterwards St Clement wrote, in answer to a communication 
of theirs, in the name of the Church of Rome, to com- 
pose their differences. About 70 years afterwards they 
were flourishing under their pious and learned Bishop 
Dionysius, who left some writings. 

Q. Give reasons for supposing that a knowledge of 
Christianity was introduced into Rome at an early period. 

A. As Tiberius had banished a multitude of Jews 
from Rome in the year 23, and did not suffer them to 



II.] THEIR BISHOPS. 23 

return until a.d. 31 ; as " strangers from Rome, Jews and 
proselytes," were present on the day of Pentecost at Jeru- 
salem, and heard St Peter ; as Rufus the son of Simon of 
Cyrene (Mark xv. 21) is said to have been that Rufus to 
whom, in the year 53, St Paul sent a salutation in his 
Epistle to the Romans; and, lastly, as Priscilla and 
Aquila were Christians when at Corinth in 46, and after- 
wards returned to Rome ; we may conclude that Christianity 
was introduced at an early period. 

Q. What indications have we of the early prosperity 
of the Church at Rome ? 

A. When St Paul wrote to the believers at Rome in 
53, he sent salutations to a numerous body of disciples. 
On his arrival at Puteoli, the disciples in that small place 
entertained him for seven days, afterwards some came 
fifty miles, from Rome to Appii Forum, and others thirty- 
three, to the Three Taverns, to meet him ; and as he was 
so successful in his two years' residence as to make con- 
verts even of those of Caesar's household, we may be 
certain that their numbers were considerable. 

Q. Under whose government does the Church of 
Rome appear to have been first placed by the Apostles ? 

A. Properly speaking there was no Church until St 
Paul arrived in the year 56 ; he, probably, before his 
departure in 58, perhaps in conjunction with St Peter, if he 
had then arrived, made Linus its Chief or Bishop. Linus 
is said to have suffered martyrdom under Nero in 67 or 
68, and to have been succeeded by Cletus or Anencletus; 
but whether Linus suffered before the Apostles or not, 
and whether St Peter and St Paul appointed his successor, 
is uncertain. 

Note: — Irenceus, Eusebius, and Jerom place the succession 
thus : Linus, Anencletus or Cletus, Clement ; but Optatus, Rufi- 
nus, and St Augustin, and some other Latin writers place Clement 
before Anencletus. Some distinguish Cletus from Anencletus. 
The Apostolical Constitutions affirm that St Paul consecrated 
Linus, and St Peter, Clement. Epiphanius conjectures that 
Clement, though appointed by St Peter, declined the dignity 



24 



THE EARLY CHURCHES AND 



[lect. 



during the lives of Linus and Anencletus, and then became the 
Bishop of the Church at Rome. 

Q. Give, with the dates of their accession, according 
to Eup-^bius and Pearson, a catalogue of the first twelve 
Bishops of Rome. 

Eus. Pear. 
A.D. A.D. 

7 Telesphorusl28...111 

8 Hyginus ...138. ..122 

9 Pius 142. ..127 

10 Anicetus ....156... 142 

11 Soter 168. ..161 

12 sEleutherus..l73...170 

Note : — Dodwell thinks Anicetus died 153, and Soter 162. 

Q. What was the order of succession of the Bishops 
of the Roman Church from the twelfth to the Council of 

Nice? 







Eus. 


Pear. 






A.D. 


A.D. 


1 


Linus 


58.. 


. 65 


2 


Anencletus 


68.. 


. 67 


3 


Clement . . 


93.. 


. 69 


4 


Evarestus 


100.. 


. 83 


5 


Alexander 


109.. 


. 91 


(3 


Sixtus .... 


.119.. 


.101 



A.D. 

13 Victor 190 

14 Zepherinus 201 

15 Callistus 218 

16 Urbanus 222 

17 Pontianus 230 

18 Anteros 1 

19 Fabianusj"* 

20 Cornelius 251 

21 Lucius 252 

22 Stephen 253 

23 Sixtus II 257 



.238 



A. 13 Victor 190 24 Dionysius 259 

25 Felix 269 

26 Euty chianus 274 

27 Caius 283 

28 Marcellinus 296 

died in Oct 304 

29 Marcellus 308 

30 Eusebius 1 ^~ 

31 Melchiadesj" 

32 Sylvester 314 

died 336 

Q. What do we know concerning their lives ? 

A. We know nothing certain concerning a great 
number of them, as no dependence can be placed upon 
the Roman pontifical books, which represent them all to 
have suffered martyrdom except Dionysius alone. Ire- 
nceus, whose list coincides with that given above, speaks 
of Telesphorus alone of the first twelve as having suffered 
martyrdom. Pontianus died in exile, and we clearly 



„.] 



THEIR BISHOPS. 



25 



learn from Cyprian's works that Fabianus suffered in the 
persecution of Decius ; Cornelius, his successor, also died 
in exile. There is no proof that any other perished by 
a violent death, although some of them were undoubtedly 
Confessors. 

Q. When was the Church of Alexandria founded ? 
Who were its earliest Bishops ? 

A. As dwellers in Egypt and in the parts of Libya 
about Cyrene, were present on the day of Pentecost, and 
Alexandria was a learned and frequented place, Chris- 
tianity must have been known there at an early period. 
JEusebius, (E. H. Book n. 16,) says that Mark preached his 
Gospel there, and founded many Churches, and (in c. 24.) 
he adds, that Annianus, the first Bishop of Alexandria 
after Mark, took charge of the Church in the eighth year 
of Nero, a.d. 62. Jerome agrees with this, and adds that 
he died and was buried there. Epiphanius says he was 
sent there by St Peter when he left Rome, an event which 
Dr Burton places in the year 58, 

The succession is 



1 Mark 


A.D, 

58 


8 Marcus . . . 


A. D. 

143 


A.D. 

15 Maximus .265 


2 Annianus . 


62 


9 Celadion . 


153 


16 Theanas . 282 


3 Abilius ... 


82 


10 Agrippinu; 


5 168 


17 Peter ... 300 


4 Cerdo 


97 


11 Julianus... 


181 


18 Achillas . . 312 


5 Primus ... 


109 


12 Demetrius 


188 


19 Alexander 315 


6 Justus 


120 


13 Heraclas 


232 


died 326 


7 Eumenes... 


131 


14 Dionysius . 


247 





26 THE PERSECUTIONS [lECT. 

XtftUtt III. 

THE PERSECUTIONS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 



Q. Shew, from Cicero and Livy, that Roman poly- 
theism was essentially intolerant. 

A. " Let no one have any separate worship, nor 
hold any new Gods ; neither to strange Gods, unless they 
have been publicly adopted, let any private worship be 
offered ; men should attend the temples erected by their 
ancestors." Extract from the most ancient laws of Rome 
quoted in Cicero de Legihus, ii. 8. " A charge was then 
given to the iEdiles, to see that no other deities should 
be worshipped than those acknowledged by the Romans ; 
nor they, in any other modes than those established by 
the custom of the country.'' Livy, iv. 30. B.C. 430. 
Similar decrees were passed at subsequent periods, and 
in some cases rigidly enforced. Livy, xxxix. 11. B.C. 186. 

Q. What testimony do subsequent heathen writers 
bear to this fact? 

A. Valerius Maximus, who lived in the time of 
Tiberius, (de Peregrina Religione Rejecta, i. 3,) says " Lu- 
tatius, who brought the first Punic war to a close, was 
forbid by the Senate to consult the sortes of Fortune at 
Praeneste." " The Senate commanded the temples of Isis 
and Serapis to be demolished." 

Dio Cassius, who flourished about a.d. 230, states 
that Mecsenas advised Augustus to punish all foreign 
religions, and in consequence conformity to that of the 
Romans was rigidly enforced. 

Q. What sentiments is Tiberius said to have enter- 
tained with regard to Christ ? 

A. Justin Martyr, who wrote about a.d. 140, in- 
cidentally mentions (Apol. i. 35 and 48) that Pilate sent 



III.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 27 

to the Emperor Tiberius an official account of the miracles 
and crucifixion of our Saviour ; and Tertullian, who wrote 
about a. d. 200, says, " Tiberius, in whose time the name 
of Christ entered into the world, laid before the Senate, 
with his own vote to begin with, things announced to him 
from Palestine, in Syria, which had there manifested the 
truth of the divinity of that Person. The Senate, because 
they had not themselves approved it, rejected it. Caesar 
held by his sentence, threatening peril to the accusers 
of the Christians" Apology, c. v. Now it cannot admit 
of a doubt, but Pilate did send some account, as it was 
the invariable custom of the authorities in the provinces to 
do so ; Justin would not be so foolish as to refer to a 
document which was in the keeping of his enemies ; Ter- 
tullian' s representation of the conduct of the Senate is in 
accordance with what took place on similar occasions (see 
Suet, Tiber, c. 31) ; and Lampridius, a heathen writer 
of the fourth century, affirms that other Emperors had 
contemplated the reception of Christ among the Gods. 
Eusebius, E.H. ii. 2, quotes the above passage of Ter- 
tullian, and adds some other particulars, as if the account 
was an admitted fact. 

Q. (l) How many persecutions are the Christians 
commonly said to have suffered? (2) Why was a par- 
ticular number fixed upon ? (3) How do the early 
Historians speak of them? 

A. (1) Ten. (2) It was an invention of the fifth 
century, derived from an arbitrary interpretation of a 
prophecy in Rev. xvii. 12, 14, " And the ten horns are 
ten kings. These shall make war with the Lamb, and 
the Lamb shall overcome them." (3) Eusebius appears to 
enumerate nine, Lactantius six, Sulpicius Severus follows 
Eusebius, but intimates that the last would be inflicted by 
Antichrist ; and from his time ten became the popular number. 

Q. (l) Who was the first Roman Emperor that 
persecuted the Christians ? (2) What conspicuous indi- 
viduals did he put to death? (3) What dates do you 

2—2 



28 THE PERSECUTIONS [LECT. 

assign for their deaths ? What for the commencement of 
the persecution? 

, A. (1) Nero. (2) St Paul and St Peter. (3) Dr 
Burton says the persecution began in 64, and that they 
suffered early in 68 ; other writers vary the date from 64 
to 68. 

Q. Did Nero's persecution extend beyond Rome ? 

A. Although Tacitus details with minuteness the cir- 
cumstances under which the Christians suffered, we cannot 
learn from him whether the persecution extended beyond 
the city of Rome or not ; but if Nero merely enforced an 
old law, and the persecution lasted from 64 to 68, we may 
admit the Lusitanian inscription, according to which Nero 
is said to have " purged that province of the new super- 
stition," to be a forgery, and yet contend with Mosheim, 
in opposition to Gibbon and Burton, that it raged through- 
out the whole world. 

Q. Under what Emperor did the second persecution 
take place? What causes are assigned for its origin, 
and over what period did it extend ? 

A. Domitian. — Hegesippus asserts that, fearing lest 
the Christians should revolt, and set up a descendant of 
David as king, the Emperor began the persecution, and 
sought out and sent for them ; but when the grandsons 
of Jude were brought before him, and found to be mere 
labourers, he dismissed them unharmed, and put an end 
to the persecution. 

Note : — Names and dates of the persecuting Emperors. 



A.D. 



1 Nero 64 

2 Domitian ... 95 

3 Trajan 107 

4 Adrian 125 



A.D. 



5 M. Aurelius 166 

6 Severus 202 

7 Maximums 235 

8 Decius 250 



A.D. 



9 Valerian... 257 
JO Diocletian 303 



Q. In what light were the Christians regarded by 
the Roman laws at the beginning of the second century ? 

A. Tertullian says, that his edict against the Chris- 
tians was the only one of Nero's that was not repealed at 



III.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 29 

his death. He also asserts that Domitian not only stopped 
the persecution, but restored those whom he had punished. 
That Marcus Aurelius, in gratitude for the deliverance of 
his army in Germany } though " he did not openly take off 
the penalty, made away with it by denouncing a more 
horrid punishment against their accusers," and that neither 
Vespasian, Trajan, Pius, or Verus, ever insisted upon it. 
From this, in opposition to Mosheim, we may argue that 
the Senate did not annul the acts of Nero, and JSTerva 
those of Domitian ; and to Gibbon, when he says " there 
were no general laws or decrees of the Senate in force 
against the Christians ; and that neither Trajan, nor any 
of his virtuous predecessors, whose edicts were received 
into the civil and criminal jurisprudence, had publicly 
declared their intentions against the new sect." The fact 
appears to be, that there were old unrepealed laws which 
might at any time be put in force, and that the condition 
of the Christians depended upon the humane feelings of the 
magistrates. 

Q. (1) What was the purport of Trajan's answer to 
Pliny ? (2) How did an Apologist expose its injustice 
and inconsistency ? 

A. (l) " That the Christians were not to be offi- 
ciously sought out, but that such as were accused and 
convicted of an adherence to Christianity, were to be put 
to death as wicked citizens, if they did not return to the 
religion of their ancestors." (2) " sentence," exclaims 
Tertullian, " necessarily confounding itself ! He for- 
biddeth that they should be enquired after, as though 
they were innocent, and commandeth that they should be 
punished, as though guilty ! He spareth and rageth, 
winketh and punisheth ! Why, sentence, dost thou 
overreach thyself? If thou condemnest, why dost thou 
not also enquire ? If thou enquirest not, why dost thou 
not acquit ?" Apology, c. ii. Library of the Fathers. 

Q. (l) Who remonstrated with Adrian? (2) What 



30 THE PERSECUTIONS [LECT. 

did he allege, and with what effect ? (3) What Christian 
writers addressed him in their favor ? 

A. (l) Serenus Granianus, Proconsul of Asia. (2) 
That it was unjust to sacrifice harmless persons, con- 
victed of no crime, to the fury of a mob. A rescript was 
issued that they should be legally tried, -and if legally 
convicted, executed ; but that false accusers should be 
punished, (ft) Quadratics and Aristides. 

Q. (l) What new attack was made on the Chris- 
tians in the reign of Antoninus ? (2) Who repelled it ? 
(3) With what success ? (4) Did this suffice ? (5) What 
further steps were taken? 

A. (l) They were now accused of Atheism and im- 
piety. (2) Justin Martyr. (3) All proceedings were to 
be regulated according to the protective laws of Adrian 
and Trajan. (4) In consequence of it no deliberate in- 
juries were now inflicted ; but the Christians suffered from 
the tumults of the people, who were persuaded that the 
national calamities arose from their impiety. (5) He de- 
nounced capital punishments against such as should accuse 
them falsely. 

Q. How did this edict affect the Christians, and how 
was it evaded under Adrian ? 

A. As it established the precedent of applying the 
old penal statutes to punish them, and affirmed that the 
mere profession of Christianity was a criminal offence, 
their condition became precarious, by leaving them, not only 
at the mercy of the Emperors, but also of the provincial 
governors ; so that when the populace, instigated by the 
calumnies of the heathen priests, demanded their destruc- 
tion at any of the public games, the magistrates were not 
called upon to oppose them with any great firmness. 

Q. How did Marcus Aurelius treat the Christians ? 

A. Shortly after his accession, he began to enforce 
the old laws against them, and during the whole of his 
reign, from a.d. 161 to 180, he deliberately persecuted 



III.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 31 

theni throughout the whole empire. The protective regu- 
lations of his predecessors were totally disregarded, and the 
lives and property of the Christians were placed at the 
mercy of their enemies. 

Q. What Churches were the chief sufferers ? What 
illustrious Christians perished ? 

A. Those of Rome, Smyrna, Lyons, and yienne, in 
Gaul. Justin Martyr suffered death at Rome, Polycarp 
at Smyrna, and Pothinus at Lyons. 

Q. What was the condition of the Christians under 
Commodus and Severus? 

A. In the reign of Commodus (a.d. 169 — 192) they 
were unmolested. Severus (a.d. 192 — 211) at first 
treated them with kindness, though in the provinces they 
were exposed to the fury of the people, and the oppression 
of the governors. But when the Emperor, excited per- 
haps by the conduct of the Montanists, in the year 203, 
enacted a law prohibiting his subjects from changing the 
religion of their ancestors for that of the Jews or Chris- 
tians, the Christians underwent great sufferings, especially 
in Asia and Egypt. 

Q. What treatment did they experience under the 
Emperors from Severus to Decius ? 

A. Under Caracalla (a.d. 211 — 217) the persecu- 
tions gradually ceased. Elagabalus (a.d. 218 — 222) even 
wished to unite the worship of Christ with his gods. 
Alexander Severus and his mother Julia (a.d. 222 — 235) 
amalgamated Christianity with Paganism, and shewed the 
Christians great kindness. Maximin, the Thracian (a.d. 
235 — 238), after murdering the Emperor Alexander, 
issued an edict against the Christian Bishops and Priests, 
which was enforced during his whole reign with great 
severity, and was eventually extended to the whole body. 
During the reigns of Gordian (a.d. 238 — 244), and Phi- 
lip the Arabian (a.d. 244 — 249), they remained unmo- 
lested. 



•32 THE PERSECUTIONS [lECT. 

Q. What was the purport of the edict of Decius 
against the Christians? 

A. That the Praetors, on pain of death, should extir- 
pate the whole body of Christians without exception, or 
force them, by pains and tortures, to return to the religion 
of their fathers. 

Q. To what has the persecution of Decius been 
attributed? What period of time did it embrace? 

A. Eusebius (E. H. vi. 39) attributes it to his hatred 
of his predecessor Philip, whom he had murdered ; Gre- 
gory Nyssen to his zeal for idolatry. It continued from 
a.d. 249 to 251. 

Q. What eminent Christians suffered in the Decian 
persecution ? 

A. Fabianus, Bishop of Pome, Alexander of Jeru- 
salem, and Babylas of Antioch, suffered death. Origen 
with others were imprisoned, and probably tortured. 

Q. Whence did the names Sacrificati, Thurificat% and Libel- 
latic% which were applied to certain Christians in the third cen- 
tury, arise ? 

A. During the Decian persecution. The Sacri/lcati were 
those who escaped death by sacrificing at the heathen altars ; 
Thurificati) were those who burned incense ; and Libellatici were 
those who produced certificates from the heathen priests of 
having complied with the edict. 

Q. How were the Christians treated between the 
times of Decius and Diocletian ? 

A. Gallus continued the persecution from 251 to 
253. Valerian (a.d. 253 — 260) left them unmolested for 
a time, but in 257 was persuaded by his favourite Ma- 
crianus to commence a persecution, which he continued 
until his death. Gallienus and his rivals had no leisure to 
molest them. Aurelian (a.d. 270 — 275) issued a perse- 
cuting edict, which was never put into execution. 

Q. What was the condition of the Christians under 
Diocletian and his associates in the empire ? 



III.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. S3 

A. Under Diocletian (a.d. 284 — 305) and his asso- 
ciates, (Maximian, Augustus, in the western provinces, a. d. 
285, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, Csesars, a.d. 292), 
the Christians were advanced to the most important offices, 
and were in a most prosperous state. In the year 303, 
however, Diocletian was induced to issue four successive 
edicts against them. The first, though it spared their 
lives, caused the deaths of many of them for refusing to 
become Traditors, or deliverers of Christian books to the 
heathen magistrates. Two conflagrations having broken 
out in the palace at Nicomedia, some Christians, accused 
of being the incendiaries, were put to the torture ; and 
nearly at the same time, insurrections having broken out 
in Armenia and Syria, the Christians were accused of 
participating in them, and a new edict was issued, which 
ordered all the Bishops and Clergy to be thrown into 
prison. By a third edict, Diocletian compelled all these 
prisoners, by tortures and other punishments, to sacrifice 
to the gods. And, lastly, in the year 304, a fourth edict 
was issued, which compelled all Christians to sacrifice, 
and being rigidly enforced everywhere, except in Gaul, 
where Constantius Chlorus commanded, the Church was 
reduced to great extremities. In the year 305, however, 
Galerius, who had instigated his father-in-law Diocletian 
to promulgate these persecuting edicts, constituted himself 
Emperor of the East, leaving the West to Constantius, 
and they associated with them Maximus and Severus. By 
this arrangement the persecution was restricted to the 
Eastern Empire. 

Q. How were the Christians treated from the ac- 
cession of Constantine to the Council of Nice (a.d. 306 
— 325)? 

A. As soon as Constantine became Emperor in 306, 
he allowed the Christians to practise their religion; but 
his colleagues continued to persecute them until Valerius, 
in 311, restored them, to peace. When Constantine and 

2—5 



84 THE PERSECUTIONS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. [LECT. 

Licinius became joint Emperors, they, in the year 313, 
issued an edict at Milan, which gave to the Christians 
full liberty of living according to their institutions; and 
although other religions were tolerated, Christianity was 
in fact firmly established. 

Q. What three reasons may be given to shew that the 
Pagan persecutions were not unfavourable to the progress of 
Christianity ? 

A. (1) They were usually of short duration, and relieved 
by long intermissions of comparative security ; they were so 
barbarous and unjust, as to shock the spectators, and to fortify 
the courage of the sufferers. (2) The v constancy of the martyrs 
convinced the heathen of their piety and sincerity, and led them 
to examine their principles. (3) Those who were thus driven 
into exile zealously propagated the faith. 

Q. Shew that the propagation of the Christian religion was 
attended with difficulty and danger as addressed (1) to the Jews ; 
(2) to the Roman government ; (3) the heathen public. 

A. (l) It opposed their received opinions, and extinguished 
their hopes of temporal power; it repealed the Levitical code; 
it reproached the ruling party with an unjust murder. (2) It 
avowed an unqualified obedience to a new master. (3) It was 
exclusive ; it was not the case of philosophers propounding 
doubts concerning the truth of the popular creed ; it interfered 
with the trade and pleasure of the multitude (Paleys Evi- 
dences, c. 1). 



IV.] ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS, &C. 35 

$Ltztuvt IV. 

ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS AND THEIR WRITINGS. 



Q. Who were called Apostolic Fathers ? 

A. (l) Clemens, Bishop of Rome. (2) Ignatius, 
Bishop of Antioch. (3) Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. 
(4) Barnabas. (5) Hermas. 

Q. Who is said to have been the third Bishop of 
Borne ? Give some account of him. 

A. That St Clemens was Bishop of Rome is admitted 
by all ; Origen, Eusebius, Jerom and Epiphanius, affirm 
that he was the fellow-labourer of St Paul saluted in 
Philip, iv. 3. Of his early life nothing is certainly 
known ; he probably was a Boman of good family, 
educated at Athens, and converted to Christianity after 
he had discovered how unsatisfactory the foundations of 
Heathen philosophy were. He is also said to have been 
instructed by St Peter, and to have attended upon his 
ministry. 

Q. When did he probably succeed to the Bishopric ? 

A. Irenseus and Eusebius call him the third Bishop 
of Rome; the latter says he succeeded Anencletus, a.d. 
92, in the twelfth year of Domitian. Tertullian writes 
that he was ordained by St Peter, but the general opinion 
is, that St Paul, or St Paul and St Peter jointly, appointed 
him head of the Church at Rome shortly before their 
martyrdom. Dodwell and Cave suppose that he suc- 
ceeded to the Bishopric about the year 64 or 65, and 
continued in it until 81. 

Note : — Although the most learned critics have discussed the 
question fully, we must be content with the knowledge that he 
governed the Church sometime during the latter half of the first 
century. 



36 ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS [LECT. 

Q. "What works have been attributed to Clement, 
and with what truth ? 

A. An Epistle to the Corinthian Church, which is 
considered to be genuine, and the fragment of another, 
which is not generally allowed to be his. An Epistle to 
James, the brother of our Lord, ten books of Recognitions, 
the Clementines or Homilies, and the Apostolical Consti- 
tutions and Canons, all of which bear his name, are uni- 
versally allowed to be supposititious. 

Q. Shew that the ancient Church held the first 
Epistle of Clemens Romanus to the Corinthian Church in 
great esteem. 

A. Irenseus speaks of it as " a most valuable Epistle." 
Eusebius shews, from a letter of Dionysius, Bishop of 
Corinth, written to Soter, Bishop of Rome, about a.d. 
170, that it was then read in the Churches as part of the 
Scriptures. Jerom, and Photius Patriarch of Constantin- 
ople, a.d. 858, say the same. Eusebius calls it "a great 
and wonderful Epistle ;" and Bishop Bull proves that, until 
it was rejected by the Council of Nice, a.d. 325, it was 
equally esteemed with the Scriptures. 

Q. "What date do you assign for the composition of Cle- 
ment's first Epistle to the Corinthians, from internal evidence? 
A. If the martyrdoms of St Paul and St Peter, which 
took place in Nero's reign, mentioned in c. 5, were then 
recent ; if the temple of Jerusalem, mentioned in c. 41, 42, 
was then existing ; if the Fortunatus mentioned in c. 49, 
was the same as is mentioned by St Paul ; the Epistle 
must have been written before the year 70. But if 
Clemens refers to Domitian's persecution ; if the temple 
is only spoken of as standing in a hypothetical sense ; if 
it was not the same Fortunatus ; and if in c. 42, the 
Church of Corinth was spoken of as being really ancient ; 
the Epistle was written about 96. 

Q. (l) Under what circumstances was the first 
Epistle of Clement of Rome written ? (2) Give a short 
synopsis of it. 



IV.] AND THEIR WRITINGS. 37 

A. (l) Dissensions having arisen in the Church of 
Corinth, a deputation was sent to that of Rome for assist- 
ance to allay them. After a delay, arising probably from 
some persecution, Clement wrote this Epistle in a friendly 
spirit in the name of the Church of Rome* 

(2) A contrast is drawn between their former faith, good 
works, order and obedience, and their present state of hatred and 
envy. It is shewn from Scripture that repentance can only be 
obtained through the blood of Christ, and humility and peace are 
inculcated from our Lord's example. He then exhorts them to 
return to their former purity and meekness, by referring to the 
harmony with which God has formed the universe. The resur- 
rection is proved by a reference to the alternations of night and 
day, the growth of seeds, and the example of the Phoenix. The 
importance of the gifts of God, faith in Christ, of gradations in 
the ministry, and fixed seasons of religious worship, are insisted 
on. He next shews the care with which the Apostles appointed 
their successors, and concludes by a deprecation against the sin of 
schism, and a feeling exhortation to union and reformation. 

Q. (l) To what Epistle of the New Testament is it 
similar in style ? to which in its arguments ? (2) What 
evidence is there in favour of the genuineness of our copy 
of it ? (3) How do you account for some extant extracts 
from it not being found in our copies ? 

A. (1) " The Epistle of Clement and that to the 
Hebrews preserve the same features of style and phraseo- 
logy, and the sentiments of these two works are not very 
different." (Euseb. E. H. hi. 38.) St Paul's First Epistle 
to the Corinthians is directly mentioned, and Clement 
argues against their dissensions as to their teachers, and 
their mistake concerning the real nature of the resurrection 
of the body. (2) The original manuscript, now in the 
British Museum, and sent by Cyril, Patriarch of Alexan- 
dria, to Charles the First, was appended to a copy of the 
Scriptures, known to have been written soon after the 
Council of Nice, and agrees, as far as we have it, with 
the quotations found in ancient writers. It was supposed 
to be lost, until discovered in the royal library, and pub- 



38 ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS [lECT. 

lished in 1663. (3) Towards the end there are evident 
tokens of a portion being wanting, and this might contain 
one or two passages which are alluded to in Basilius ; 
(de Spiritu Sancto, c. 29.) 

Q. (1) Who was the second Bishop of Antioch ? 
(2) Give some account of his early history, his surname, 
and of his becoming Bishop. 

A. (l) Ignatius. (2) We are entirely ignorant of 
the place of his birth ; but from "A Relation of his Mar- 
tyrdom," c. 3, we learn that he was a disciple of St John, 
and from St Chrysostom that he knew the Apostles, but 
never saw our Lord. He was called Theophorus, because 
(Eel. of Martyr, c. 2) he "had Christ in his heart," and 
not because he was " borne by Christ," i. e. was the little 
child whom he took up in his arms as related in St Matt, 
xviii. 2. Eusebius, (E. H. iii. 36,) says, " he was suc- 
cessor of Peter at Antioch, and the second that obtained 
the Episcopal office there." According to St Chrysostom, 
" the hands of the blessed Apostles touched his head, and 
by them he was ordained to his office." He is generally 
said to have succeeded Evodius, about a.d. 68 or 70; if 
he was appointed by St Paul or St Peter, it must have 
been earlier. He might have been ordained presbyter by 
St Paul or St Peter, and Bishop by St John, or some 
other of the Apostles. 

Q. Give some account of his persecution and mar- 
tyrdom. 

A. " The Relation" alleges that he suffered death 
at Pome, by being thrown to the wild beasts in the 
amphitheatre in the year 107, but others have placed that 
event as late as 116. He appears to have had an inter- 
view with the Emperor Trajan at Antioch, and to have 
been immediately afterwards delivered to a guard to 
convey him to Pome. He sailed from Seleucia, and 
landed first at Smyrna, where he was received by Poly- 
carp, its Bishop, and waited upon by the Bishops of 
Ephesus, Magnesia, and Tralles, at the head of deputations 



JV.] AND THEIR WRITINGS. 39 

from the clergy, who are said to have expected to receive 
from him some spiritual gift. He was then hurried to 
Troas and Philippi, from thence through Macedonia and 
Epirus to Epidamnus, and thence to Italy and Home, 
where he suffered on the 19th of December. 

Q. From whence, and to whom, did Ignatius write 
certain Epistles? 

A. From Smyrna he wrote Epistles to the Ephe- 
sians, Magnesians, Trallians, and Romans, and from Troas 
to the Smyrnseans, Polycarp, and the Philadelphians. 

[Q. Shew that Ignatius did write these Epistles. 

A, Polycarp, as stated by Eusebius, (E. H. in. 36,) 
" makes mention of these same Epistles, in the Epistle 
to the Philippians (c. 13) which bears his name," and 
from using language also similar to that of Ignatius he 
is supposed to have had these Epistles in view. Irenceus, 
as quoted by Eusebius, (E. H. v. 28,) " makes mention of 
Justin Martyr and Ignatius, taking some testimony also 
from the works written by these." Again, " as some of 
our faith has said, who was condemned to the wild beasts, 
' I am the food of God, and am ground by the teeth of 
wild beasts, that I may be found pure bread'." (Iren. v. 
28, 4. Ign. ep. ad Pom. c. 4.) But as the work of 
Irenseus was written chiefly against Heretics, it was not 
his object to quote writers whom they might not receive. 
Justin Martyr and Tertullian evidently use his words. 
Origen, in the early part of the third century, in his 
Prologue to the Canticles, quotes this passage from the 
Ep. to the Romans, c. 7, " I remember one of the saints, 
Ignatius by name, to have said of Christ, ' My love is 
crucified';" and in the Homily on St Luke vi. he quotes 
from the Ep. to Ephes. c. 19, the saying " the virginity 
of Mary was kept in secret from the prince of this world." 
Eusebius quotes and describes them most accurately. 
Chrysostom in the fourth, Theodoret and others in the 
fifth, Ephraim, Gildas, and others in the sixth, and 
various authors down to the fifteenth century quote them. 



40 ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS [LECT. 

Q. Prove that the Epistles of Ignatius referred to 
by Eusebius, Origen and others, are those which we now 
have. 

A. About a.d 1500 an old Latin version of three 
Epistles appeared ; about 1557 three editions containing 
twelve epistles appeared ; but as the seven Greek Epistles, 
with the same titles as those mentioned by Eusebius, did 
not agree with the ancient quotations, and the other five 
were unnoticed by ancient writers, suspicions were excited 
of their having been interpolated. Archbishop Usher, 
finding that the quotations made by ,some English writers 
agreed with the quotations in Theodoret, but disagreed 
with the printed copy, both in Greek and Latin, was 
induced to search for copies in England, and at length 
found two Latin manuscripts, one in the Library of Caius 
College, Cambridge, the other belonging to Dr Richard 
Montacute, Bishop of Norwich, which agreed with the 
extracts of the English writers, and in 1664 published 
a Greek edition in which the interpolations are marked 
with red ink. Isaac Vossius, in the year 1646, published 
a Greek Edition of the genuine Epistles from an ancient 
manuscript in the Medicean Library at Florence, which 
closely corresponded with the old Latin version. It was 
then found that our editions corresponded with the ancient 
extracts, and no doubt now exists but these shorter Epistles 
were those which Polycarp so highly prized,] 

Q. Give a short account of St Polycarp. 

A. Nothing is known of his early life. Irenceus 
asserts from personal knowledge that he was a disciple of 
St John, had conversed with others who had seen the 
Lord, and was appointed Bishop of Smyrna by the 
Apostles, which could only be done by St John. Si 
Jerom says he was the most considerable Bishop in Asia 
after the death of St John. He went to Rome to confer 
with Anicetus, Bishop of that See, on the Paschal contro- 
versy, and though nothing was effected towards a settle- 
ment, he was treated with great consideration, so much so 



IV.] AND THEIR WRITINGS. 4l 

that he officiated at the Eucharist in the presence of the 
Bishop of Rome. Irenceus relates that the heretic Marcion 
accosted him at Rome in the words, "Dost thou acknow- 
ledge me ?" " I do," replied he ; "I acknowledge thee 
for the first-born of Satan." Cave, following Eusebius 
and Jerom, conceives him to have been martyred a. d. 167, 
when nearly 100 years old, by assuming him — when he 
himself said, " Four score and six years have I continued 
serving Christ" — to allude to the period since he had been 
converted. Pearson places his martyrdom in the year 
147, about the time Justin Martyr presented his first 
Apology. The circular Epistle of the Church of Smyrna 
relates the particulars which occurred at his martyrdom. 

Q. What works did Polycarp write ? which are ex- 
tant, and in what form ? 

A. Irenaius assures us that he wrote several Epistles 
to the neighbouring Churches ; but there is only one extant. 
It is addressed to the Philippians, and is quoted by St 
Irenseus, Eusebius, St Jerom and Photius, who all attri- 
bute it to St Polycarp. A part only of the original in 
Greek has been preserved, but there is a Latin translation 
of the entire Epistle. 

Q. Give a short synopsis of his Epistle to the Philippians. 

A. He commends their attention to their suffering brethren ; 
exhorts them to continue stedfast in the faith ; reminds them of 
St Paul's Epistle addressed to them ; sets before them the prac- 
tical duties of Faith, Hope, and Charity ; condemns covetousness ; 
alludes to the duties of husbands, wives, widows ; of deacons, 
young men, virgins ; of Presbyters ; and enforces them by the 
consideration that they must all give an account of their actions 
to God. Next, as to matters of faith, he refers to Christ, his 
nature, and sufferings ; the example of the martyrs as incentives 
to patience and charity ; he feelingly adverts to the ill conduct of 
Yalens, a presbyter ; deprecates severity ; exhorts them to pray 
for others, and refers to the Epistles of Ignatius which he had 
sent. 

Q. What work has been attributed to St Barnabas ? 

A. St Jerom says he wrote an Epistle, which is full 

of edification for the Church, although it was not reckoned 



42 ON THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS [lECT. 

canonical. Clemens Alexandrinus and Origen quote it, 
without questioning its being the Apostle's work. Eusebius 
and Jerom exclude it from the Canon, only because it was 
not generally received by the Church. It has been ob- 
jected that St Barnabas could not have written a work so 
replete with forced allegories, strange explanations of 
Scripture, and such fables concerning animals, as are in- 
serted in the first part ; but we must bear in mind that 
Barnabas was a learned Jew, and was writing to Jews 
who were familiar with such allegories, and mystical ex- 
planations of Scripture ; that the Phoenix and scarlet thread 
of Rahab in Clemens Romanus are made to typify the 
resurrection and the blood of Christ; that the Stromata 
of Clemens Alexandrinus, and the writings in general of 
the primitive Christians, partake of this character ; and, 
lastly, that the ancient writers who received it as genuine 
were as capable of judging on these points as any critics 
of later times. 

Q. In what form do we possess it? Give some 
account of its contents. 

A. It is written in Greek ; but as the title is want- 
ing, we can only conjecture that it was addressed to 
some converted Jews, who adhered too strictly to the 
Mosaic Law. In the first part he shews the unprofitable- 
ness of the Law, and necessity for Christ coming in the 
flesh ; he produces many passages from Scripture relating 
to Ceremonies and Precepts of the Old Law, and explains 
them in an allegorical way as referring to Christ and the 
New Law. In the second part he delivers moral instruc- 
tions, and shews what things ought to be done, and what 
left undone. It is valuable in questions on the Canon, of 
Baptism and the Sabbath, the influence of the Spirit, the 
divinity of Christ, the atonement, and some few other 
questions. 

Q. Who was the author of the Shepherd of Hernias ? 

A. All ancient writers quote it as the work of a 
Hennas; and Origen, Eusebius, and St Jerom, attribute 



IV.] AND THEIR WRITINGS. 43 

it to the Hermas who is saluted by St Paul at the end of 
his Epistle to the Romans. Some authors have attributed 
it to Hermes, the brother of Pope Pius the first ; but as it 
was written in Greek, and the weight of testimony is so 
much against them, we may reasonably conclude they were 
mistaken. 

Q. "Was it considered Canonical, or not? 

A. "It is certain that it has been hitherto received in many 
Churches as Canonical, and that St Irmceus, St Clemens Alex- 
andrinus, Origen, and even Tertullian, in lib. cle Oratione, cite it 
as a part of Holy Scripture : nevertheless it cannot be doubted, 
that it hath been rejected by divers Churches, and esteemed only 
as a Treatise, that might be used to very good purpose for the 
edification of Christians. But there have been very few ancient 
authors, that have not set a high esteem on this book, and it 
has always been cited by the Fathers, as a work of great autho- 
rity." JDiqnn, Vol, i. art. Hermas. 

Q. Give some account of its contents. 

A. In the first part, styled Visions, a woman, who 
represents the Church, explains to Hermas in several 
revelations the state of the Church, and the manners of 
Christians. In the second part, entitled Precepts, the 
Pastor or angel delivers many moral precepts and in- 
structions. The third part is called the Similitudes, 
because it contains many similes and visions. 

Q. In what form do we possess it ? In what does 
its value consist ? 

A. It was originally written in Greek, but we only 
possess a mutilated Latin version, which, however, cor- 
responds with the Greek passages cited by St Clement, 
Origen, and other ancient writers. TTe quote it to prove 
the early existence of the three distinct orders of Bishops, 
Priests, and Deacons. The Romanists attempt to prove 
their Purgatory from it ; but Hermas evidently only refers 
to this life. A question concerning Baptism and its .effi- 
cacy arises out of it. The incidental proof of the Godhead 
is very strong. It touches on fasting, second marriages, 
good and evil angels, prayers, prophecy, &c. 



44 THE APOLOGIES OF [LECT. 

£erture v. 

THE APOLOGIES OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 



Q. Who presented the earliest Apologies to a Roman 
Emperor ? What is known of their writers ? 

A. Quadratns and Aristides. Quadratus presented 
his Apology to Hadrian at Athens, about the year 125. 
It appears from Eusebius (E. H. in. 37. iv. 3), that he 
was endued with a preternatural influence of the Spirit, 
and had seen persons who had been miraculously healed 
by our Saviour. Aristides presented his Apology to 
Hadrian also at Athens a short time afterwards. 

Q. What writings come next after those of the 
Apostolic Fathers? What two different characters do 
they bear ? 

A. Those of Justin Martyr. Some appeal to them 
as expositions of the sense in which the early Christians 
understood some of the leading doctrines of the Church ; 
while others consider them as having exercised a corrupt 
influence, by infusing the mysticism of the Platonic School 
of Philosophy among the simple truths of the Gospel. 

Q. What is known of the life of Justin Martyr ? 

A. That he was born of Gentile parents near Sa- 
maria, about the beginning of the second century ; that 
he had carefully studied the tenets of the leading sects 
of Philosophers ; that being convinced of their want of 
a solid basis, he at length, without laying aside his 
philosopher's mantle, became a zealous defender of the 
Christians, and embodied in his writings the arguments 
favourable to their cause. He is said to have been be- 
headed at Rome about the year 165, probably at the 
instigation of his opponent, Crescens, the Cynic philo- 
sopher. 



V.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 45 

Q. To whom were Justin Martyr's two Apologies 
addressed ? About what time were they written ? 

A. The first (which in some editions is incorrectly 
placed second) is addressed to Antoninus Pius, Marcus 
Antoninus, Lucius Verus, and the Senate and people of 
Rome ; as he speaks of Christ having been born about 
150 years previously, and alludes to the death and deifi- 
cation of Antinous, and the revolt of Barchochebas as 
recent, also of the decree of Adrian, which forbade a Jew's 
visiting Jerusalem, some approximation may be made to 
the date of its composition. Dodwell, because Marcus 
Aurelius is not mentioned as Caesar, is inclined to place 
its date at the very commencement of the reign of Anto- 
ninus ; but many concur with the Benedictine editors in 
placing it as early as 150. 

The second Apology, according to Eusebius, was pre- 
sented to Marcus Antoninus ; but some critics maintain that 
it was presented to Antoninus Pius. In the title it is 
addressed to the Roman Senate, and it is believed by some 
to have been presented a.d. 165, only a short time before 
Justin's death. 

Q. "What is the subject-matter of Justin's first Apology ? 

A. He first complains of the injustice of denying to Chris- 
tians that liberty of worship which all other sects enjoyed, and 
of proceeding against and condemning them, without first investi- 
gating the truth of their opinions. He then refutes the charges 
of disloyalty, immorality and atheism, which were alleged against 
them, by shewing that they only expected a heavenly kingdom ; 
and referring to the purity of their precepts he boldly affirms that 
good effects had been already produced among the people. He 
next shews that the miracles alleged in their favour were not of 
a magical nature ; and appealing to those prophecies which had 
already been accomplished, he expresses his firm conviction that 
the others would be fulfilled in due time. Lastly, he exposes the 
absurdity of Idolatry; he concludes with a description of the 
doctrines and ceremonies of the Christian Church, and the mode 
in which converts were adopted. 

Q. Give an account of Justin's second Apology. 

A. It is in the form of a remonstrance against 



46 THE APOLOGIES OF [lECT. 

putting Christians to death, as Urbicus, the prefect of 
Rome had lately done, merely for being such. He at 
once replies to some objections generally urged against 
them, such as, if they were sure of going to Heaven, why 
did they not put themselves to death ? Why did God 
suffer them to be thus oppressed ? Why did they incul- 
cate virtue merely by the arguments of future rewards 
and punishments? After answering these objections, he 
proves the divine origin of their religion from the fact 
that the humblest Christians were ready to die in attes- 
tation of its truth, and that he himself was converted by 
beholding the constancy with which they endured their 
sufferings. 

Q. What remarkable work of Justin's do we possess 
besides his Apologies ? 

A. The Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, probably 
written soon after the first Apology, as it contains an 
allusion to it. It purports to be a discussion held by 
Justin with a Jew, at Ephesus, which lasted two days ; 
portions of the conclusion of the first and the beginning 
of the second day's dialogue are lost. He proves, in 
opposition to the Jew, by citing passages from the Old 
Testament, that Jesus Christ was the true Messiah and 
the Word, that he appeared to the Patriarchs of old, and 
humbled himself to be born of a woman, for the salvation 
of mankind. 



Q. What other works are admitted by some to be Justin's ? 
What are totally rejected? 

A. A fragment "de Monarchic/. Dei," which, (if it is part of 
a work mentioned by Eusebius, demonstrating from Scripture, 
and profane authors, the Unity of one God,) is generally admitted 
to be genuine, and the Hortatory Address to the Greeks, whose 
genuineness is not admitted by critics. "The Confutation of 
certain Tenets of Aristotle; the Christian Questions to the Greeks; 
the Greek Questions to the Christians; the Answers to the Or- 
thodox; the Exposition of the True Faith respecting the Trinity; 
the Epistle to Diognetus, and the Epistle to Zenas and Serenus, 
were not composed by Justin." Bishop Kaye. 



V.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 47 

Q. Who was the next Apologist after Justin Mar- 
tyr ? What is known of his life ? 

A. Athenagoras. He was a teacher of philosophy 
at Athens, who after reading the Scriptures with a view 
of confuting the Christians, became a convert. Philip of 
Side asserts that he became president of the Catechetical 
School at Alexandria, where he taught philosophy, and 
also lectured on Divinity. 

Q. What is the Title of the Apology of Athena- 
goras? To whom is it addressed, and when was it 
presented ? 

A. "An Embassy in behalf of the Christians." Some 
critics say that it was presented to M. Aur. Antoninus and 
L. Aur. Commodus, a.d. 166; others to M. Antoninus and 
L. Verus, a.d. 177 or 178. 

Q. Give a brief analysis of the argument of his 
Apology. 

A. He first represents the injustice of persecuting the 
Christians as such, especially as they yielded to none in 
piety and loyalty, whilst all pagan systems were pro- 
tected. He then shews that they were not Atheists, 
because "they considered as God the Creator of this 
universe, and the Word, which is of him." They ad- 
dressed him in prayer, &c., lived in conformity to his 
laws, and believed that he saw and knew all things; but 
he confesses that they abominated all idol- worship. He 
then refutes the charges of their eating the flesh of in- 
fants, and committing horrible crimes hi their assemblies, 
by shewing that they were repugnant to the morality and 
laws of their religion. 

Q. What other work of Athenagoras is now extant? 

A. A. treatise "On the Kesurrection of the Dead." 

Q. State some of the points in which his works are valu- 
able. 

A. They contradict the assertion of some modern writers 
that - the Christians in general were an illiterate and fanatical 
sect, both by the learning which they display, and the skill 



48 THE APOLOGIES OF [lECT. 

with which they refute the objections of the heathen against the 
Resurrection. Athenagoras refers to the Gospels of St Matthew 
and St John, and some of St Paul's Epistles ; but the Canon of 
Scripture was probably not settled at that time. His expressions 
(Resurrection, 12, 14.) regarding the effects of the fall of Adam, 
in common with other Fathers, are not very clear, and he appears 
to make future punishments to depend upon actual sin. There 
is no mention of Baptism, or the Constitution of the Church, 
and it is doubtful whether he alludes to the Eucharist, (Res. 13.) 
He is supposed to sanction the worship of Angels, (Embassy, 10, 
24.) ; but he speaks of them as created by and obeying the com- 
mands of God. He appears to approve of celibacy, and blames 
second marriages. (Emb. 38.) His views on the doctrine of the 
Trinity are very explicit and sound. (Emb. 6. 10. 24.) 

Q. (1) What do we know of the life of Tertullian ? 

(2) Some doubt whether he was a presbyter. Why ? 

(3) If he was a presbyter, where did he officiate? (4) 
Is the value of his works affected by his becoming 
heretical? 

A. (l) " Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus " 
was a native of Carthage, the son of a centurion in per- 
sonal attendance on the proconsul, born of heathen parents 
about a.d. 150, and converted about a.d. 185. He was 
ordained a presbyter about 192, became a Montanist about 
200, and died, some say, a.d, 230, others 245. He ap- 
pears to have been well educated, as he wrote in the 
Greek language, and shews great familiarity with legal 
and military phraseology. (2) The Romanists deny it, 
as he was undoubtedly married ; they also quote two pas- 
sages from his works in which they allege he calls himself 
a layman, but St Jerom distinctly affirms that he was a 
presbyter. (3) It is believed he belonged to the Church 
of Rome. (4) When he became a strict Montanist, he 
endeavoured to expose the supposed faulty practice and 
discipline of the Church, and thus we obtain his account 
of its ceremonies, discipline, and doctrines, as well as his 
testimony to the genuineness and integrity of the Canon of 
Scripture. 

Q. How may the works of Tertullian be classed ? 



V.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 49 

A- Into those written before, and those after, he 
became a Montanist. 

Q. By what peculiarities of style and expression are they 
distinguished ? 

A. "He frequently hurries his hearers along by his vehe- 
mence, and surprises them by the vigour, as well as inexhaustible 
fertility of his imagination : but his copiousness is without selec- 
tion, and there was in his character a propensity to exaggeration 
which affected his language, and rendered it inflated and un- 
natural." (Bishop of Lincoln's Tertullian, c. i. p. 66.) "Tertullian 
makes frequent use of metaphors, which are drawn from legal 
and from military sources, his probable profession explaining the 
first circumstance, and his father's the second; he is extremely 
fond of an antithetical play upon words, for the sole sake of 
which the sentence appears sometimes constructed and inserted." 
Woodhams Tertull. Lib. Apol. p. xviii. (See also Chevallier's, 
and Dodgsoris, Translations and Notes.) 

Q. What internal evidence is there to shew where, 
and to whom Tertullian's Apology was written ? 

A. As (in cc. 9, 21, 35) he speaks of Rome, its 
rulers, and inhabitants, as if they were at a distance ; as 
(cc. 2, 50, 45) he uses expressions which indicate that 
the persons he was addressing were Presidents of a pro- 
consular province ; and as these circumstances correspond 
to the state of Africa at that time ; we may presume that 
he wrote it at or near Carthage, and addressed it to the 
executive government of the country. 

Q. At what time was it written ? 

A. As (in c. 5) after mentioning the persecutions of 
Nero and Domitian, he says, " But out of so many princes 
thenceforward to him (Severus) of the present day, who 
had any savour of religion and humanity, shew us any 
destroyer of the Christians." It must have been written 
under Severus, before he became a persecutor, especially 
as the Christians were then suffering under " an ancient 
decree," and not the new one, which was promulgated in 
the year 202. As (in c. 35) he speaks of " the division 
of the donative," and " the gleaning that remains after 
the general harvest of the parricides," it must have been 
3 



50 THE APOLOGIES OF 



LECT. 



written subsequently to the punishment of the adherents 
of Albinus (in 196, 7), and the largess given by Severus 
in consequence (in 198). Moshehn says it was written 
a.d. 198 ; Cave and Dodwell, 202 ; Basnage, 203 ; Bishop 
Kaye (from c. 37. suggests) 204; Pagi, 205; Scaliger, 211 ; 
and lastly Allix, 217. 

Q. Give a brief analysis of the Apology. 

A. He shews (c. 1 — 7) the injustice of condemning 
the Christians without a hearing ; (c. 7 — 10) the falsehood 
of charging them with murder, incest, worshipping an ape's 
head, &c; (10 — 28) why they refused to sacrifice to the 
gods ; and (28 — 37) for the safety of the emperor ; (37 — 
45) the fallacy of many objections to the practices of 
Christians ; (45 — 50) how much superior their virtues 
were to those of the Heathen. 

Q. What is known of the life and writings of Me- 
lito? 

A. That he was Bishop of Sardis in Lydia about 
a.d. 170, and wrote many works, principally on the doc- 
trine and discipline of the Church, of which nothing is 
extant except their titles and a few small fragments pre- 
served by Eusebius (E. H. iv. 26). It appears from the 
letter of Polycrates, Bishop of Smyrna, to Victor, who 
became Bishop of Rome in 190, that Melito was then 
dead. " Why," says he (Eusebius, E. H. v. 24) " should 
I not speak of Melito, whose walk and conversation was 
altogether under the influence of the Holy Spirit, who 
now rests in Sardis?" St Jerom also informs us, "that 
Tertullian, in one of his books, praises Melito's elegant 
and oratorical genius, and says, that he was esteemed a 
prophet by many of the people." According to Eusebius 
he was the first Christian writer who made a catalogue 
of the Scriptures of the Old Testament. 

Q. What is known of Melito's Apology? 

A. That he presented, or at least addressed it, to Marcus 
Antoninus about a.d. 177- (Lardner, article Melito). He en- 
treated him to examine the accusations brought against them, 



V.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 51 

and to revoke his persecuting edict. He represents that the 
religion was advantageous to the empire, and had been persecuted 
only by wicked emperors, such as Nero and Domitian ; that 
Adrian and Antoninus had written letters in its behalf, and 
therefore he hoped to obtain an alleviation of their sufferings. 

Q. Give some account of the Apologies of Apol- 
linarius and Miltiades. 

A. Apollinarius, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, in 
the reign of Marcus Antoninus, wrote to that emperor an 
" Oration in defence of the Christian Religion." Miltiades, 
who nourished about a.d. 180, "made an Apology to the 
princes of this world for the philosophy which he fol- 
lowed ;" that is, for the Christian religion. (Eusebius, 
v. 17, as quoted by Lardner.) 

Q. Who was Minutius Felix? Give an analysis of 
his Apology. 

A. He was probably an African by birth, but was 
known as an advocate at Rome; he wrote an "Apology 
for the Christian Religion," soon after that of Tertullian, 
probably about 210 ; it is in the form of a dialogue, in 
which Ca3cilius, a heathen, objects, Octavius replies, and 
Felix is moderator. Satisfactory answers are given to 
the objections, that the world is not under moral govern- 
ment, and the difficulty in attaining to religious truth ; 
that heathenism is useful, the Christians are of low estate, 
and hold absurd doctrines; that the sufferings of Chris- 
tians are an argument of their inferiority to the Romans, 
and that Socrates pointed out the true mode of teaching 
on doubtful questions. 



3—2 



52 THE WRITERS OF [lECT. 

nurture VI. 

ON THE WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 



Q. Name the principal Christian writers of the second 
century. 



6 Theophilus of Antioch. 

7 Irenseus of Lyons. 

8 Clemens of Alexandria. 

9 Tertullian, p. 48. 
10 Hermias. 



A. 1 Justin Martyr, p. 44. 

2 Hegesippus, p. 1. 

3 Tatian. 

4 Dionysius of Corinth. 

5 Athenagoras, p. 47. 
Q. Mention some particulars relating to Tatian and 

his works. 

A. He was a native of Assyria, who had carefully 
studied Grecian philosophy, and was converted at Rome 
by reading the books of the Old Testament. Irenceus, 
his contemporary, says he was a pupil of Justin Martyr's. 
He certainly soon after his conversion became Justin's 
friend, and after assisting him in composing his Apology, 
took his place at Rome as a Christian teacher for some 
time ; but whether he was misled by confidence and self- 
conceit, as Irenseus asserts, or by the errors of the Gnos- 
tics, he certainly about the year 172 held heretical 
doctrines, and became the founder of the Encratites, or 
Continents ; he condemned the use of wine ; denied the 
reality of Christ's sufferings, the salvation of Adam, and 
the lawfulness of marriage ; he asserted that there were 
two Gods, and believed in the ^Eons of Valentinus. Eu- 
sebius (E. H. iv. 29) says he left a great multitude of 
writings, and particularizes, a " Diatessaron," in which 
the genealogies of our Saviour, and those passages which 
designate him as the son of David, are omitted, and "An 
Address to the Gentiles," of which we only possess the 
latter. 



VI.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 53 

Q. Give a short account of Tatian s extant work. 

A. His "Address to the Gentiles," was probably written 
about a. d. 165, before the death of Justin, at which time, accord- 
ing to Irenaaus, his tenets were orthodox. He shews that the 
Greeks borrowed their knowledge of science from the barbarians ; 
he treats of the nature of God, the Word, the resurrection, the 
freedom of the soul, the nature of demons, satirizes the pagan 
gods and philosophers; he then states tbat the writings of Moses 
were more ancient than all their histories, and gives a description 
of the holy lives of the Christians. " This work is extremely full 
of profane learning, and the style thereof is elegant enough, but 
exuberant, and not very elaborate, and the matters therein con- 
tained are not digested into any order." (Dupin, Art. Tatian.) 

Q. What is known of Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth '? 

A. That he flourished under Marcus Antoninus and 
Commodus, and wrote, about a.d. 170, seven Catholic 
Epistles to the Churches of Laceda?mon, Athens, Xico- 
media, Crete, Pontus, Gnossus in Crete, and Rome, which 
latter is inscribed to Soter its Bishop. "And besides these, 
says Eusebius (E. H. n. 25; iv. 23) there is extant another, 
sent to Chrysophora, a most faithful sister." The only 
remains of these Epistles are a few fragments preserved 
bj Eusebius. 

Q. Give a short account of the life and writings of 
the sixth Bishop of Antioch. 

A. Theophilus wrote a book against Marcion, and 
"another, also, which has the title, 'Against the heresy 
of Hermogenes ; ' in which he makes use of testimony 
from the Revelation of John, besides certain other cate- 
chetical works." (Eusebius, E. H. iv. 24). His only 
extant work consists of three books to " Autolychus," a 
learned heathen of his acquaintance, who had undertaken 
to confute the Christians. From this we learn that Theo- 
philus was a heathen who had been converted to Christi- 
anity by reading the Scriptures, especially the prophets 
(ad Autolychum, i. 14) ; that he came from the neighbour- 
hood of the Euphrates (ii. 24), lived until the times of 
Aurelius Yerus, and this work was written in the reign of 
Commodus, about a.d. 181. (iii. 27). 



54 THE WRITERS OF [lECT. 

Q. Who was the first Christian writer in the 
Western parts of the Roman empire? What works did 
he write? 

A. Irenseus, born in Asia Minor about 140 or 150, 
or much earlier according to some critics; though chiefly 
educated by Polycarp, he was skilled in heathen literature. 
He was a presbyter under Pothinus, Bishop of Lyons in 
Gaul, and in 177 was sent from that Church, with its 
testimony against the Montanists, to Eleutherus, Bishop 
of Rome. On the death of P*)thinus in that year, he was 
consecrated his successor, but whether at Rome or in Gaul 
is uncertain. His lost writings were letters to Blastus 
and Florinus, two presbyters at Rome, who were stirring 
up strife, and subsequently separated from the communion 
of the Church, by embracing some of the Valentinian doc- 
trines. He also wrote a treatise against Heresies about 
190, and afterwards withstood Victor, Bishop of Rome, 
who excommunicated the Asiatics for adhering to their 
own custom of keeping Easter, and died in 202, probably 
by martyrdom. Eusebius and Jerom mention some other 
treatises of his, but do not include him in their catalogues 
of martyrs. 

Q. Give some account of Irenseus's extant work. 

A. It is a treatise in five books, entitled "A Refu- 
tation of Knowledge falsely so called," written originally 
in Greek ; the greater part of the first and fragments of the 
other books are extant in that language, and there is a 
Latin version of the whole of ancient date, quoted by 
Tertullian and Augustine, but the translator was indif- 
ferently acquainted either with the language or the sub- 
ject. As in the third book Eleutherus, Bishop of Rome 
(a.d. 177 — 192), and Theodotion's Latin version of the 
Old Testament, made about 184, are mentioned, this 
work was probably written at intervals about a.d. 190. 

Q. Give a short synopsis of the extant work of Irenasus. 
A. The first book contains an account of the system of 
Valentinus (cc. 1 — 7) ; a refutation of the Scriptures alleged in 



VI.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 55 

its favour (8, 9) ; the unity of the Catholic doctrine (10), and 
the discrepancies of the Gnostic system (c. 11 to the end). The 
second book destroys his system (c. 1 — 19); developes the former 
refutation (in b. i. 9, c. 20 — 25) ; gives rules for the proper study 
of Scripture (26 — 29) ; considers and refutes particular opinions 
(29 to end). The third book (c. 1) shews that Scripture con- 
tains the doctrines of the Church ; refutes heretics from tradition 
(2 — 4) ; proves from Scripture that there is one God, one Jesus 
Christ, truly God and man (5 — 22) ; refute's Tatian's opinion 
that Adam was not saved (23) ; and concludes with general 
reflections. The fourth book proves that Christ testified only 
of one God, his Father, the creator and ruler of the world, the 
giver of the two covenants, and the judge of all men (1 — 36), 
and concludes w T ith asserting the responsibility and free-will of 
man. The fifth book shews, by quotations from St Paul, that 
the same God who spake to Abraham and Moses, sent his Son 
to save the world (1 — 6, 15 — 18) ; corroborates from Scripture 
St Paul's doctrine of the resurrection (7 — 14) ; alleges that Satan 
and Antichrist are opposed to it (19 — 30), and concludes (31 — 
35) with shewing that Christ and the righteous shall reign here- 
after on the earth, and that the just shall inherit eternal life. 

Q. What is known of the native country, the edu- 
cation, and subsequent life of Clemens Alexandrinus ? 

A. Epiphanius (Adv. Hasr.) says that some called 
him an Athenian, and others an Alexandrian, from whence 
Cave infers that he was a native of Athens, who after- 
wards settled at Alexandria. We learn from his Stromata 
(Book i.) that he had a Ccelo-Syrian teacher in Greece, 
an Egyptian in Magna-Grsecia, an Assyrian in the East, 
a Jewish in Palestine, and lastly Pantaenus in Egypt. 
Eusebius says he was a converted heathen, St Jerom 
that he was a presbyter of the Church, and after the 
death of Pantaenus, master of the Catechetical School of 
Alexandria. He flourished under the emperors Severus 
and Caracalla (a.d. 192 — 217). At the commencement 
of the persecution of Severus, 202, he left Egypt and spent 
some time at iElia-Capitolina, but afterwards returned to 
Alexandria, where he died about 220. 

Q. Describe those works of Clemens Alexandrinus of which 
only fragments are extant. 



56 THE WRITERS OF [lECT. 

A. They consisted of " Hypotyposes, or Outlines of the 
Books of Scripture;" Eusebius (E. II. vi. 14) says he included 
some writings whose genuineness was questioned. " One book 
concerning Easter." Eusebius (iv. 26, vi. 13) says it was written 
in opposition to Melito to preserve the true traditions of the 
elders. " A Discourse concerning Fasting." " One Book on 
Slander." " One on the Ecclesiastical Canons, and against those 
who follow the errors of the Jews, addressed to Alexander, 
Bishop of Jerusalem." " An Exhortation to Patience, addressed 
to the newly baptized." (Bishop Kaye on the Writings of 
Clement.) 

Q. Briefly notice those which are nearly complete. 

A. "The Hortatory Address \o the Greeks," "ra- 
tionally refutes the follies and impieties of the Gentile Re- 
ligion, and strongly persuades men to embrace Christianity." 
The " Paedagogus," in three books, " tutors and instructs 
new converts, and by the most admirable rules and pathe- 
tical insinuations prepares and forms them to an holy and 
truly Christian life." The " Stromata," literally Tapestry, 
(in eight books, of which the first has some sentences 
wanting at the commencement, and the last is imperfect,) 
" administers strong meat to them that are of a more 
full age, is a clearer explication of the Christian Doctrine, 
and a more particular confutation both of Gentile and 
Heretical opinions, admitting the disciple, after his first 
purgation and initiation, into a more immediate acquaint- 
ance with the sacred mysteries of religion. His Stro- 
mata are nothing but miscellaneous discourses composed 
out of the Holy Writings, and the books of the Gentiles ; 
explaining and (as occasion is) confuting the opinions of 
the Greeks and Barbarians, the sentiments of Philoso- 
phers, and the notions of Heretics ; inserting variety of 
stories, and treasures out of all sorts of learning." (Cave's 
Life of C. A. See Dupin, Fleury, Book iv. Echard, 
in. 3. Bp. Kaye). A tract entitled "Who is the Rich 
Man that shall be saved ? " consisting of a Homily on our 
Saviour's words in Mark x. 17, is expressly ascribed to 
him by Eusebius, and though in a style different from his 



VI.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 57 

other works, contains several words used in his peculiar 
manner. (Bp. Kaye, p. 228). 

Q. Who was Hermias ? Give some account of his 
extant work. 

A. A Christian Philosopher, who probably nourished 
about the end of the second century, although some critics 
maintain that he belongs to a much later period. We 
have a short treatise of his, entitled " A Satire on the 
Heathen Philosophers," in which he ridicules the various 
theories which they held on the nature of the soul, their 
disputes as to its duration, their discordant theories about 
God and nature, and their different systems of philo- 
sophy. The style and argument possess considerable 
merit, but were not calculated to produce on its opponents 
a favourable impression of Christianity. 

Q. Name the principal Greek and Latin writers of 
the third century. 

A. The Latin writers were Minucius Felix (p. 51), 
St Cyprian, and Arnobius ; the Greek, Origen, Dionysius 
the Great, Bishop of Alexandria, and Gregory, surnamed 
Thaumaturgus, Bishop of Neocaesarea in Pontus. 

Q. Give a short account of Cyprian before he be- 
came a Bishop. From what persecution did he first suffer, 
and how did he act ? 

A. Thascius Csecilianus Cyprianus was born in Africa, 
of Heathen parents, about the year 200. He taught rhe- 
toric at Carthage, and either from his eminent success, 
or some other sources, had acquired considerable wealth. 
He was converted by Ca3cilius in 246, ordained presbyter 
in 247, and with the exception of five dissentient pres- 
byters, was unanimously elected Bishop of Carthage in 
248. In the year 250 he withdrew from Carthage to 
avoid the Decian persecution ; but he kept up a constant 
communication by letter with his clergy, and returned 
after an absence of about sixteen months. 

Q. Give an account of the latter years of St Cy- 
prian^ life, and his martyrdom. 

3—5 



58 THE WRITERS OF 



LECT. 



A. On his return to Carthage in 251, he called a 
council, which decided that the lapsed should be leniently 
treated, and excommunicated his opponents. In the next 
year a council confirmed this decision, and also decided that 
baptism might be administered to infants of any age. A 
pestilence having broken out, he was indefatigable in re- 
lieving and encouraging the suffering Christians by his 
example and writings ; he also prevailed on some Spanish 
and Gallic bishops to adopt his views as to the treatment 
of the lapsed. In the years 256 and 257 he maintained, 
in opposition to Stephen, Bishop of Rome, that baptism 
administered by heretics must be repeated, and strength- 
ened his decision by that of a council held in 256. The 
calm, however, which the Christians had enjoyed for nearly 
four years, since the accession of Valerian in 253, was 
now (in 257) interrupted by the emperor ordering that 
bishops and presbyters, who did not conform to the reli- 
gion of the empire, should be banished. Cyprian was 
sent to Curubis, a place about fifty miles from Carthage, 
where he remained for eleven months, but was again, (in 
258) conveyed to the neighbourhood of Carthage, and 
after some delay brought before Paternus the PraBtor, 
when the following dialogue was held. " Are you Thas- 
cius Cyprian ?" " I am." " Are you he whom the 
Christians call their bishop ?" "I am." " Our princes 
have ordered you to worship the gods." " That I will 
not do." " Let Thascius Cyprian, who refuses to sacrifice 
to the gods, be put to death by the sword." He was 
then beheaded on the 17th September. (Milner, ch. xiv. 
Library of the Fathers, Cypriaiis Treatises.) 

Q. How did the contest between Cyprian and Ste- 
phen conclude? 

A. When Cyprian received his answer, he sent it 
to Firmilian, Bishop of Csesarea, who sent a long letter 
in answer, asserting that Cyprian's practice was that which 
had been in use in his country from time immemorial. 
Cyprian then called a council in 256 at Carthage, which 



VI 



] THE EARLY CHURCH. 59 



confirmed his opinion. Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, 
also wrote to Stephen to persuade him to preserve peace. 
The subsequent persecutions and martyrdoms of Cyprian 
and Stephen shortly afterwards suspended the controversy. 

Q. Who was Arnobius ? At what period did he 
live? 

A. A converted heathen, born at Sicca, in Africa, 
where he was an eminent teacher of rhetoric. He flou- 
rished from about a.d. 297 to 306, and died about a.d. 325. 

Q. What work of his is extant ? What is its cha- 
racter ? 

A. "A disputation against the Gentiles," in seven 
books, in which he forcibly exposes the inconsistencies and 
follies of heathenism. It abounds with curious informa- 
tion, and is remarkable for abstaining from quoting the 
Scriptures ; probably because his adversaries would not 
admit their value. 

Q. In the beginning of the third century a remark- 
able Christian teacher sprung up at Alexandria. Men- 
tion, with dates, the principal events in his life. 

A. Origen was the son of Leonides, an Alexandrian 
Christian, who suffered martyrdom in the year 202. Leo- 
nides had caused his son to be instructed in Christianity 
by Clemens Alexandrinus, the head of the Catechetical 
School, and in philosophy by Ammonius. On the death 
of his father, Origen became a teacher of languages, but 
soon afterwards dedicated himself entirely to giving in- 
struction in Christianity, and encouraging the suffering 
Church. He soon afterwards became the head of the 
Catechetical School. In the year 313 he visited Rome, 
and after his return he was compelled, in 215, to flee from 
Alexandria to avoid the persecution of Caracalla. He 
withdrew to Csesarea, where he was hospitably received, 
and was ultimately ordained by the Bishops of Jerusa- 
lem and Csesarea. Soon afterwards, owing to disputes 
with Demetrius, his bishop, he withdrew altogether from 
Alexandria, and settled at Caesarea in the year 230. In 



60 THE WRITERS OF [LECT\ 

235 he retired for two years into Cappadocia to avoid 
the persecution of Maximums ; in 244 he visited Arabia, 
and settled some differences in the Church ; in 253 he was 
harassed by the persecution of Decius, and in the same 
year died in prison at Csesarea, at the age of seventy. 

Q. What do we know of the life of Gregory of 
Neocaesarea, surnamed Thaumaturgus ? 

A. That he was born at Neocaesarea, in Pontus, of 
heathen parents, about a. d. 200 ; that his original name 
was Theodorus ; that he was intended for a lawyer, but 
having become a pupil of Origen at Caesarea, in Palestine, 
he was converted about 231. He was ordained pres- 
byter about 240, and shortly afterwards consecrated 
Bishop of Neocaesarea, where he soon erected a Church. 
About a.d. 250, in the Decian persecution, he retired 
from Pontus, but soon afterwards returned, and died there 
about a.d. 270. 

Q, What custom did he establish in the Church ? 

A. Of commemorating the days on which martyrs 
or confessors had died ; this he did probably to draw 
attention from heathen festivals. 

Q. Why was he called Thaumaturgus ? 

A. Because he saw many visions, and worked a 
number of miracles, he got this surname of the Worker 
of Miracles. 

Q. Give some particulars of the life of Dionysius 
the Great, of Alexandria. 

A. He was probably a heathen teacher of rhetoric 
at Alexandria, but became a pupil of Origen, and when 
Heraclas, the successor of Origen, was made Bishop of 
Alexandria, Dionysius succeeded him in the Catechetical 
School, 232. About 247 or 248 he succeeded Heraclas 
in the bishopric. At the breaking out of the Decian 
persecution, in 249 or 250, he fled to Libya until 251, 
whence he wrote several Epistles to his Presbyters, to 
comfort them under their* afflictions. He returned, and 
died in the year 264 or 265, 



VI.] THE EARLY CHURCH. 61 

Q. Describe some of the works that were written 
to oppose the early Christians. , 

A. Crescens, a cynic philosopher, described to be a 
man of depraved morals, in the reigns of Antoninus and 
Aurelius opposed Justin Martyr. Lucian of Samosata, 
an Epicurean, according to Suidas, originally a Christian 
preacher at Antioch, opposed them in the reigns of Aure- 
lius and Commodus. Celsus, an Epicurean, 01% as some say, 
a Platonic philosopher, wrote a most elaborate treatise 
against them in the reign of Hadrian, or later, according 
to some writers. Origen published a celebrated reply to 
it in the middle of the third century, and preserves the 
only fragments of it which remain. It was entitled " The 
Word of Truth," and attacked the Jews as well as the 
Christians, 

Q. Who was Lactantius ? What is known of his 
works ? 

A. Lucius Csecilius Firmianus Lactantius was a dis- 
ciple of Arnobius, who taught rhetoric at Sicca, in Africa. 
At an early age he removed to Nicomedia to teach rhe- 
toric, but meeting with little success, he employed himself 
in composing various works. In his " Divine Institutions," 
he exposed the hollowness of the Heathen system, and 
defends the Christian. His work on the " Deaths of the 
Persecutors," shewing that all the persecuting died mise- 
rably, contains much valuable information. Although 
Constantine made him tutor to his son Crispus, he died 
in poverty about a.d. 325. 

Note : — Eusebius and other writers preserve some letters of 
Christian bishops, and the names and fragments of other works, 
but none of such consequence as to need any special notice at 
present. 



62 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. [lECT. 



Eerture vn. 

HISTORY OF THE JEWS FROM THE DEATH OF HEROD TO THE 
ENTIRE DISPERSION OF THE NATION. 



Q. What distribution did Herod the Great make 
to his sons of his kingdom ? What became of them and 
their territories ? 

A. (l) He assigned Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea 
to his son Archelaus. Augustus gave him the title of 
Ethnarch. He is mentioned by St Matthew (ii. 22), 
when Joseph and Mary returned from Egypt. Augustus 
banished him a.d. 8, and annexed his territories to the 
Roman province of Syria. From that time Judaea was 
generally governed by a Roman Procurator, who was 
dependent upon the governor of Syria. (2) Herod Anti- 
pas, or Antipater, another son, received Galilee and Peraea, 
with the title of Tetrarch. He divorced his wife, and 
forcibly took away and married Herodias, his brother 
Herod Philip's wife, and put John the Baptist to death. 
He is the Herod so frequently mentioned in the Gospels, 
sometimes with the title of king, to whom Christ was sent 
by Pilate. (See Matt. xiv. 1, 3, 6 ; Mark vi. 14 ; Luke 
hi. 1, 19 ; ix. 7, 9 ; xxiii. 7 — 15 ; Acts iv. 27.) He was 
banished to Lyons in Gaul, a.d. 37. (3) Philip, the 
tetrarch of Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, and Batanaea, is only 
recorded by St Luke (iii. 1) as fixing with others the 
era of the commencement of the missions of our Saviour 
and John the Baptist. He reigned thirty-seven years, 
and on his decease without male issue, his government 
was annexed to the Roman province of Syria, a.d. 36. 

Q. What member of Herod's family afterwards be- 
came distinguished? 

A. Agrippa, or Herod Agrippa I., was the grand- 
son of Herod the Great, by his wife Mariamne, the Asmo- 



VII.] HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 63 

nean princess, the grand-daughter of Hyrcanus, the last 
of that family. His father Aristobulus was put to death 
by Herod in his life-time. Caligula made him tetrarch of 
Trachonitis and Abilene, and Claudius gave him the king- 
dom of Judaea. He slew James the Apostle, the brother 
of St John (Acts xii. 1, 2,) and imprisoned St Peter. He 
died of a noisome disease at Caesarea, as related in the 
Acts (xii. 20 — 23) and Josephus, a.d. 44. 

Q. Give a short account of the Procurators of Judaea, 
from the death of Agrippa I. to the destruction of Jeru- 
salem (a.d. 44 — 72). 

A. Judaea was reduced to a province under Cuspius 
Fadus as procurator. He was soon re-called, and Tiberius 
Alexander held the appointment until a.d. 48, at which 
time Cumanus and Felix were sent as joint governors of 
the three districts of Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee. A 
tumult having arisen at Jerusalem, Cumanus slaughtered 
about 20,000 Jews, and was in consequence re-called in 
the year 50. Felix being made sole procurator, freed the 
country from the assassins, and repressed the tumults 
raised by some pretended Messiahs, which are the worthy 
deeds referred to by Tertullus, the orator, a.d. 53, when 
Paul was accused at Caesarea before him. He married 
Drusilla, the youngest daughter of the late king, after 
persuading her to leave her legitimate husband ; and hence 
the propriety of St Paul's reasoning concerning righteous- 
ness and temperance (Acts xxiv. 25). In the year 55 he 
was superseded by Portius Festus, before whom, in the 
presence of Agrippa and Bernice, Paul made his defence 
(Acts xxv. 13, 23 ; xxvi. 30). He died in Judaea about 
the year 62. Albinus succeeded him, and in 65 Gessius 
Florus became procurator in his stead. JNext year, owing 
to his oppressive government, the Jews broke out into 
that insurrection which was concluded by the destruction 
of Jerusalem by Titus in the year 72. 

Q. Mention some particulars in the life of the last 
Jewish king. 



64 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. [LECT. 

A. On the death of Herod Agrippa L, his son, who 
afterwards became Herod Agrippa II., being only seven- 
teen years of age, Claudius deemed it inexpedient to trust 
his father's territories to his rule. He, however, gave to 
Herod, the brother of Agrippa L, who was king of Chal- 
cis (a country between the mountains Libanus and Anti- 
libanus), the right of naming the High-Priests of the Jews, 
and the superintendence of the temple. In the year 49, 
his nephew succeeded to his kingdom and power at Jeru- 
salem ; four years afterwards Claudius gave him Tracho- 
nitis, and the neighbouring districts, in exchange for 
Chalcis. In the first year of his reign, Nero bestowed 
on him, in addition, part of Galilee, and several towns 
in Persea; after which Josephus, Tacitus, and St Luke, 
style him king. It was about this time that he and his 
sister Bernice went down to Csesarea to congratulate 
Festus, and heard St Paul in his defence. After this we 
hear nothing more of him in connexion with Christianity, 
but he appears to have enjoyed the favour of the succeed- 
ing Emperors, and to have died about a.d. 91. 

Q. Give a brief account of the state of the Jews from 
Titus to Hadrian (a.d. 72 — 135). 

A, Some remained in Palestine, but many joined 
their countrymen in foreign lands, where from the op- 
pression of their rulers, they often broke out into insur- 
rections. The first of these was in Cyrenaica (a.d. 115) ; 
it extended throughout Egypt, but continued longest in 
Cyprus. About the same time another broke out in 
Mesopotamia. After great slaughter, and much cruelty 
on both sides, the Jews were overcome and dispersed. 
These repeated rebellions appear to have suggested to 
Adrian the idea of abolishing the distinctive mark of their 
nation by prohibiting circumcision; he also sent a colony to 
Jerusalem (a.d. 119), and is said to have built a temple to 
Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of their temple. In the year 
132 the Jews revolted under the guidance of Bar-Cochebas, 
or the son of a star (Numb. xxiv. 17), who pretended to be 



VII.] HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 65 

the Messiah. He, chiefly through the influence of the 
Rabbi xlkiba, collected many followers, established himself 
in the fortress of Bitthera, and soon subdued the whole of 
Syria. He treated the Christians with great cruelty for 
rejecting his pretensions ; but the Romans, after a bloody 
war, took Bitthera (a.d. 135). Bar-Cochebas perished in 
the siege. Adrian now, if not before, made Jerusalem a 
heathen city under the name of yElia-Capitolina, and built 
a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus on the spot where the 
Jewish temple had stood. He also placed a statue of 
Jupiter over the sepulchre of our Saviour, and one of 
Venus on mount Calvary. No Jew was to be allowed 
to visit Jerusalem, except on the tenth of August, the 
anniversary of the day on which it was taken by Titus. 
They might then for one hour take a view of the walls ; 
any further indulgence was to be purchased for a settled 
sum. 

Q. What was the condition of the Jews subsequent 
to the reign of Adrian? 

A. Adrian's edict against circumcision remained in 
force until the reign of Antoninus, and subsequent cruelties 
caused them to revolt in the reigns of Severus, Constan- 
tine, and Constantius. The Emperor Julian (a.d. 361 — 
364) endeavoured to have their temple re-built ; but it 
is said that various prodigies obliged them to relinquish 
the enterprise. From that time they lived in subjection 
to the emperors, having liberty to exercise their religion, 
but were strictly forbidden to molest the Christians, or to 
make converts. Thenceforward the succession of their 
sacerdotal race became interrupted, and they could scarcely 
distinguish their tribes and families. They endeavoured 
to keep up a religious form of government ; those in 
Judaea chose a chief, whom they called a Patriarch ; and 
those who were scattered chose a chief under the name of 
the Prince of the Captivity. In the year 429, Theodosius 
abolished the title of Patriarch, and the accounts regard- 
ing the Chief of the Captivity are very uncertain. 



66 COUNCILS AND CONTROVERSIES [lECT. 

£erture viii. 

ON THE COUNCILS AND CONTROVERSIES OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 



Q. For what objects were the Apostolic Synods 
held ? 

A. To elect a successor to Judas, a.d. 31, (Acts i. 
26), and to select the seven deacons, a.d. 31, (Acts vi. 5) ; 
when Paul and Barnabas, at Jerusalem, opposed the at- 
tempt to impose circumcision on the Gentile converts at 
Antioch, a.d. 46, (Acts xv.) ; and lastly, when the tole- 
ration of legal rites was discussed, (Acts xxi. 18). 

Q. Why does Mosheim deny the meeting of the 
Church at Jerusalem (recorded in Acts xv.) to have been 
a Council? 

A. Because it was a meeting of one Church only; 
whereas a council is an assembly of representatives sent 
from several Churches. 

Note: — I. St Paul and St Barnabas appear to have been 
the representatives and deputies of the whole foreign Gentile 
Church, of which Antioch w T as the head. St Peter also, who 
had lately converted Cornelius, a Gentile, was present. At Je- 
rusalem the Apostles and elders came together " for to consider 
of this matter." It is also probable that some of the company 
were representatives of other Churches which they might have 
founded. St James appears to have presided, " and when there 
had been much disputing Peter rose up," and delivered his 
opinion ; then " all the multitude kept silence, and gave audi^ 
ence to Barnabas and Paul." And after they had all held their 
peace, St James said, "My sentence is that we trouble not them." 
Letters were then sent unto the Gentile Churches in Antioch, 
Syria, and Cilicia, announcing that it had " seemed good to the 
Holy Ghost" and themselves to give this decision, and it was 
undoubtedly received by the whole Church. If such a meeting 
was not a general council, and an example to guide the Church 
in future emergencies, it is difficult to say what can constitute 
such an assembly. 



VIII.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 67 

Note : — II. As the errors of the Heretics were confuted by 
the Apostles in their writings, and the regulations which they 
had established as to government of the Churches, and the pun- 
ishment of offending members were recent, and as the infant 
Churches were subject to persecution, it is not surprizing that 
we should hear nothing authentic of councils until some dan- 
gerous heresy beyond the controul of a single bishop arose. The 
councils in the second century were those held about 170 or 173 
against the Montanists, and next in order were those concerning 
the Paschal controversy. 

Q. In what did the Eastern differ from the Western 
Churches in keeping Easter ? 

A. The Eastern Churches kept their Easter on the 
fourteenth day of the first Jewish month Msan, which 
began at the new moon next after the vernal equinox, 
without any reference to the day of the week in which 
it fell, and were thence called Quartodecimans, or such 
as kept Easter on the fourteenth day after the appearance 
of the moon. Whereas the other Churches kept their 
Easter on the Sunday immediately following the Jewish 
Passover. 

Q. When did this difference first attract attention, 
and what steps were then taken ? 

A. St Poly carp, Bishop of Smyrna, paid a visit to 
Anicetus, Bishop of Rome, about a.d. 158, when the sub- 
ject was discussed ; the former asserted that St John and 
St Philip had sanctioned their practice; the latter appealed 
to St Peter and St Paul for their custom. Irenaaus ex- 
pressly states that neither could prevail on the other to 
concede. 

Q. Under what circumstances was the subject again 
discussed, and with what result? 

A. The Churches of Jerusalem, Caesarea, Tyre, Gaul, 
Corinth, aud other places, together with that of Borne, of 
which Victor was then bishop, urged the Asiatics to con- 
form ; but they, under the guidance of Polycrates, Bishop 
of Ephesus, in firm but mild terms refused to abandon a 
practice which had been sanctioned by St John, St Philip, 



68 COUNCILS AND CONTROVERSIES [LECT. 

and St Polycarp. Victor then endeavoured to induce the 
other Churches of Asia to exclude those of Proconsular 
Asia from their Communion, but they refused ; upon which 
he wrote to announce that his own Church would hold no 
intercourse with them. This step was highly disapproved 
of by the bishops of the other Churches, and by none 
more than Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons in Gaul, who sent 
a letter of remonstrance to Victor, which is said to have 
had the effect of reconciling all parties, and the question 
remained in the same state until the Council of Nice, 
a.d. 325. 

Q. What great controversies took place in the third 
century ? 

A. (1) Between Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, 
and the Churches of Palestine, on account of Origen. 
(2) The Novatian. (3) Between the Roman Church and 
those in Africa and Asia ; Stephen, Bishop of Rome, being 
the leader on one side, and Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, 
on the other. (4) The Millenarian. 

Q. Under what circumstances did the controversy 
with regard to Origen arise ? How did it terminate ? 

A. In the year 215, Origen took refuge, from the 
persecution of Caracalla, at Csesarea in Palestine. Here 
Theoctistus the bishop permitted him to deliver discourses 
publicly in the Church. Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, 
hearing of it, wrote to remonstrate against allowing a lay- 
man to do so, and when Theoctistus and Alexander, Bishop 
of Jerusalem, wrote in reply, and quoted precedents in 
favour of the practice, Demetrius recalled Origen to Alex- 
andria. Origen continued to preside over the Catechetical 
School until a. d. 229, in which year, on his way to Greece, 
he stopped at Csesarea, where Theoctistus, assisted by 
Alexander, and probably some other bishops, ordained 
him presbyter. Demetrius remonstrated without effect ; 
but when Origen returned to Alexandria in 231, a meet- 
ing of bishops and presbyters decided that he was no 
longer to teach, and must leave the place. Shortly after 



VIII.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 69 

his departure a council of bishops degraded him from his 
office of presbyter ; but whether this was done from jea- 
lousy, or from his holding unsound doctrines, we have no 
certain means of forming a judgment. 

Q. Explain a difficulty which arose during the Decian 
persecution. 

A. As death or conformity to pagan worship was 
the only alternative, some Christians sacrificed, though they 
retained their belief, and others enrolled themselves as 
having done so. The general custom was for the bishop 
and clergy to readmit them, after imdergoing certain pen- 
ance, to Church communion ; confessors also, who had been 
tortured or sentenced to death, could give letters of peace 
which entitled the lapsed to the remission of some of this 
penance. 

Q. Describe the origin of the Novatian Schism. 

A. Novatus and four other presbyters opposed Cy- 
prian's election, which had been made by the acclamation of 
the people in 248 or 249 ; and when he withdrew in 251 
to avoid the Decian persecution, Novatus, Fortunatus, Feli- 
cissimus, and others persuaded some of the confessors to 
readmit the lapsed to communion without his sanction, and 
promoted a schism. On his return in 251, Cyprian called 
a council, and excommunicated Novatus and his adherents, 
xlbout the same time Novatian, a learned presbyter at 
Rome, opposed the election of Cornelius to that See, 
alleging that he had lapsed. When the charge was 
refuted, Novatian set himself up as a rival bishop, and 
induced three obscure bishops to consecrate him. He 
was also accused of having denied his profession to escape 
persecution, and was said to have been baptized in bed 
when dangerously ill, which disqualified him from being 
a presbyter at Rome. Cornelius called a council of sixty 
bishops, and a great number of presbyters, where Nova- 
tian was condemned. Novatus came to Rome about this 
time, and uniting with Novatian, they separated them- 
selves from the Church, and established an austere dis- 



70 COUNCILS AND CONTROVERSIES [lECT. 

cipline, and would not so much as admit the lapsed to 
do penance. Their sect, which embraced great numbers, 
was afterwards merged in that of the Donatists. 

Q. Trace the origin and progress of the controversy 
concerning heretical baptism. 

A. Agrippinus, Bishop of Carthage, held a council 
about the year 215, which decided that heretics should 
be rebaptized; the councils of Iconium, 231, and Synnas, 
in Phrygia, gave the same decision. Cyprian got this 
confirmed at a council at Carthage in 256, and wrote to 
Stephen, Bishop of Rome, to entreat him to introduce the 
same discipline, as the practice of that Church was dif- 
ferent ; but Stephen, so far from complying, refused com- 
munion and hospitality to the deputies, and declared that 
the laying on of hands was sufficient. 



Q. Did the controversy extend to all cases ? 

A. St Cyprian and the African bishops held that all bap- 
tism administered by heretics was void, because persons who had 
not the Holy Ghost could not give it. whilst Stephen is accused 
of maintaining that baptism conferred by those who did not 
believe in the Trinity was valid ; but this is very improbable. 

Q. On what side was the Church ? 

A. St Augustin praises the moderation of Cyprian in de- 
clining to separate from the communion of Stephen, and excuses 
him by saying that the controversy had never been decided by a 
general council. Dionysius Alexandrinus (in Eusebius, E. H. 
vii. 5, 7> 9) and St Basil state that conflicting opinions existed 
in the Church. The Council of Nice (see Hammond's Canons, 
c. 19) ordered that the Paulianists should be rebaptized, but that 
the Novatians should be received by the imposition of hands. 
The first Council of Aries decreed, that heretics who had been 
baptized in the name of the Trinity should not be rebaptized 
(Cone. Arelat. c. 8). The Western Church held this opinion, 
and although the Eastern Churches did formerly do so, yet it 
appears from the Canons of the Council of Constantinople, and 
that of Trullo, that the Fathers distinguished the cases of three 
sorts of heretics, (l) The ancient heretics, the Paulianists, Sa- 
bellians, were to be rebaptized. (2) The Arians, Macedonians, 
Novatians, Apollinarists, were to be anointed. (3) The Nes- 
torians, Eutychians, Severians, Acephalics, and Monothelites, 
were only to abjure their errors. 



VIII.] OE THE EARLY CHURCH. 7l 

Q. With what object were the two most remarkable 
councils in the third century held ? 

A. To examine into the tenets of Paul of Samosata, 
Bishop of Antioch, who is said to have denied " that Christ 
had any distinct personal existence before the time when 
Jesus was born of Mary." The first was held in the year 
265. Eusebius (E. H. vn. 27, 29, 30) says, that Firmi- 
lian of Csesarea, in Cappadocia, and the Bishops of Pontus, 
Tarsus, Csesarea, in Palestine, Jerusalem, Iconium, besides 
many other bishops and presbyters, attended. The sup- 
porters of Paul, however, managed the argument with so 
much skill, that the council, on his promising to renounce 
his error, separated without coming to any decision. But 
as he did not keep his word, and continued to spread his 
erroneous tenets as industriously as before, the bishops 
assembled a second time at Antioch in the year 270, to the 
number of seventy, and upon Malchion, a presbyter, and 
chief teacher in a school of philosophy at Antioch, shew- 
ing that he was in error, he was deposed, and Domnus 
elected in his stead. 

Q. Explain the difficulty that now arose. 

A. As Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, had possession 
of Antioch, and Paul had her support, he refused to give 
up the episcopal residence ; but the Emperor Aurelian 
having taken Antioch in 272, the Catholics addressed 
him to dispossess Paul, and to put Domnus in his place, 
which he did, and Domnus was acknowledged by the 
Roman and other Churches. 

Q. Who first taught a belief in a Millennium? 
What was its nature ? In what Church did this belief 
gain ground? When was it condemned? 

A. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, who 
died about a.d. 163. "He believed that previous to the 
final judgment, there would be a resurrection of the just, 
who would reign with Christ upon earth for a thousand 
years. Justin Martyr, Irenseus, Tertullian, and others, 
also professed a belief that Christ was to reign upon earth 



72 COUNCILS AND CONTROVERSIES [lECT. 

for a thousand years previous to the general resurrection. 
Cerinthus made the joys of this kingdom to be of a gross 
and sensual kind." INTepos, a Bishop of Arsinoitis, in 
Egypt, having written a popular book which rather sup- 
ported this notion, Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, even 
after Nepos was dead, called a synod, a.d. 262, which 
silenced the supporters of the doctrine, and from that 
time few writers of note defended it. {Burton). 

Q. From whence did the first contest arise among 
the Christians of the fourth century ? 

A. Mensurius, Bishop of Carthage, having died in 
311, the greatest part of the clergy and people chose 
Csecilianus in his place, and the Bishops of Africa Minor 
consecrated him, without waiting for the assembling of 
the Wumidian bishops. These latter, to the number of 
seventy, came to Carthage, accused Cseeilianus of being 
a traditor, and of having shewn great harshness to the 
Christian martyrs and confessors during Diocletian's per- 
secution. They also alleged that Felix of Aptungis, the 
chief of the bishops who had assisted at his consecration, 
had delivered up the sacred books, and that he therefore 
could not impart the Holy Ghost to Ca3cilianus. They 
then deposed him, and elected Majorinus in his place. 

Q. What means were taken to heal the schism at 
first, and with what effect ? 

A. Constantine ordered ten bishops of each party 
to appear at Borne in the year 313, before Melchiades, 
bishop of that see, and three bishops of Gaul his co- 
adjutors. Csecilianus was declared innocent, and Donatus, 
bishop of Casa-Nigra, the chief of the other party, was 
condemned, but the bishops of his party had the option 
of continuing in their sees provided they became reconciled 
to Csecilianus ; and if there was a bishop of each party 
in any place, he who was first consecrated was allowed to 
continue. 

Q. State the subsequent investigations of this schism . 

A. JElian, the proconsul of Africa, ascertained that 



VIII.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 73 

Felix had been unjustly accused, and at a council at Aries 
in 314, which was attended by thirty-four bishops from 
Italy, Germany, Gaul, and Spain, Csecilianus was declared 
innocent, and his chief accusers excommunicated, until they 
should return to the Catholic Church. The Donatists then 
appealed to the emperor, who sent for both parties to 
Milan, where he declared Caecilianus innocent, and con- 
demned his opponents, by a rescript, dated Nov. 9, 316. 

Q. How did Constantine treat the Donatists after 
the edict of Milan ? 

A. Enraged at them contumelious proceedings, he 
deprived them of their churches in Africa, and banished, 
and even put to death some of their bishops ; but as the 
Circumcelliones, a party of desperate ruffians, maintained 
their cause, and filled Africa with slaughter and rapine, 
he subsequently abrogated the laws against them. 

Q. In what did their crime chiefly consist ? 

A. In maintaining that their communion alone was 
the true Church, and that every Church which adhered to 
Csecilianus was corrupt and fallen, and deprived of the 
gifts of the Holy Ghost. They also re-baptized all con- 
verts to their opinions. 

Q. Detail their subsequent history. 

A. They increased so^much (from a.d. 321 to 330) 
as in some places to outnumber the Catholics. In 348 
the generals of Constans dispersed them, but being re- 
stored to their Churches by Julian in 362, they then 
retaliated on their enemies. Gratian persecuted them in 
387, but a schism amongst themselves, and a council at 
Carthage, held a. d. 411, which decided against them 
(through the influence of St Augustin), so reduced the 
party, that it lost its influence, and finally disappeared 
about the end of the sixth century. 



74 HERESIES AND HERETICS [LECT. 

Eerture ix. 

THE HERESIES AND HERETICS OF THE EA.RLY CHURCH. 



Q. (l) What is the original meaning of the word 
" Heresy"? (2) Define it. 

A. (l) A choice, or election, whether of good or 
evil. It chiefly designates a moral choice, or the adop- 
tion of some one opinion in preference to another, (2) 
" Heresy is the pertinacious denial of some truth cer- 
tainly revealed." 

Note : — The offence against communion is called schism ; and 
schism in its extremest degree, is separation, dissent, or (as it is 
sometimes called) heresy. Division or schism is partial, when 
no rival worship is established, or when the communion of the 
great body of the Church is not rejected, nor withdrawn by a 
legitimate judgment : but when one or more professing Christians 
separate themselves from the communion of a particular Church, 
and from that of the great body of Christians, or are cut off from 
it by a regular and legitimate judgment, they are totally sepa- 
rated from the Church of God." {Palmer on the Church, p. 1, 
c. 4, sect. 2.) 

Q. How was the word heresy applied by different 
writers ? 

A. The philosophers used it to designate the pre- 
ference and selection of some one speculative opinion, and 
in process of time it became nearly synonymous with sect, 
without any reproach being implied. St Luke and Jo- 
sephus (Acts v. 17 ; xv. 5 ; Joseph. Antiq. xm. 5, 9) thus 
applied it to the Sadducees and Pharisees. The Jews 
adopted the word to distinguish the new opinions of the 
Christians : St Paul was designated as the " ringleader of 
the heresy of the Nazarenes," and himself confessed that 
he worshipped " the God of his fathers, after the way which 
they call heresy." The Christians continued to use the 
word in its general sense, to denote not only sects but 



IX.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 75 

false religions ; but chiefly to designate those professing 
Christians who had departed from the doctrines of the 
Apostles. The notion of wilfulness, perversity, and even 
immorality was also attached to it at an early period. 

Q. What errors are spoken of in the New Testa- 
ment? Where, and by whom? 

A. St John (Rev. ii.) speaks of the Nicolaitans, 
whom Irenseus and others say were the followers of the 
Deacon Nicolas, but Clemens Alexandrinus asserts that 
they abused a saying of his, "that we ought to make 
use of the flesh," to gratify their own lusts. The Doceta? 
are alluded to by St John (1 Ep. iv. 2 ; 2 Ep. vii.) They 
held that the body of Jesus was a mere phantom un- 
connected with matter. St Paul also (Acts xx. 19, 30; 
2 Tim. ii. 17, 18 ; iii. 1 ; 1 Cor. i. 12 ; Ep. xvi. 17) 
speaks of divisions among Christians. 

Q. How does Mosheim distinguish the early here- 
tics? 

A. (l) Those who associated Christianity with Ju- 
daism, as the ISazarenes and Ebionites ; (2) those who 
infused its doctrines into the oriental philosophy, as Elxai, 
Simon Magus, Menander, Saturninus, Cerdo, and Marcion, 
of the Asiatic school ; Basilides, Carpocrates, and Yalen- 
tinus, who perfected the system, of the Alexandrian school ; 
(3) those who stand by the principles of the Grecian philo- 
sophy, as Praxeas, Artemon, Theodotus, and others. 

Q. What view did Dr Burton take of the early 
heresies ? 

A. He ascribed the rise of all of them to the Gnostic 
philosophy, under which name he includes almost every 
form of philosophy ; the Eastern doctrine of the two prin- 
ciples ; the Jewish Cabala ; and lastly the Platonic philo- 
sophy, as it was modified at Alexandria. 

Q. State the opinions of some of the early Fathers 
on this subject. 

A. Hegesippus (Euseb. E. H. iv. 22 ; it. 13) says 
that Thebuthis, the rival of Symeon for the bishopric of 

4 — 2 



76 HERESIES AND HERETICS [LECT. 

Jerusalem after the death of James, a.d. 62, was the first 
heretic. Clemens Alexandrinus asserts that heresies began 
in the reign of Hadrian (a.d. 117 — 138; Stromata, vn. 
1). Irenseus assures us that Valentinus derived his doc- 
trine of the succession of iEons from the Grecian Theogony. 
Tertullian expressly calls the philosophers (of the sects of 
Pythagoras and Plato) the " patriarchs of the heretics." 

Q. What was the origin and basis of Gnosticism ? 

A. The inquiry into the nature and origin of evil. 
Being convinced that the divine agency could not be its 
author, they attributed its origin to matter, and therefore 
inferred that matter was eternal ; but as there are so many 
modifications of evil, they supposed that there must be 
some evil principle, superior indeed to man, but subordi- 
nate to the Author of all good. They next affirmed that 
this evil principle was the God of the Jews, and the author 
of the Old Testament, and that the good principle, the 
author of the New Testament, sent Jesus Christ to destroy 
the reign of the evil principle on earth. This necessarily 
led them to reject the inspiration of the Old Testament. 

Q. In what manner did the Gnostics misrepresent 
the New Testament ? 

A. They denied that Christ came in the flesh, or 
really suffered, or died ; they asserted that his apparent 
body was a fantastic, incorporeal substance. They denied 
the resurrection of the body, as it was too gross a sub- 
stance for a higher destiny. This again led some of them 
to mortify the sensual part of our nature, in order to free 
the soul from its pollution, whilst others indulged in all 
sorts of impurity, as the body was unworthy of any con- 
sideration. 

Q. (1) In what character is Simon Magus repre- 
sented by the early Fathers ? (2) What do they say 
of a statue erected to him at Rome ; and what is probably 
their mistake? 

A. (l) Justin Martyr says that the Samaritans, 
and some few others, worshipped him as the supreme God, 



X.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 77 



IX 



and that having in the reign of Claudius performed some 
magical miracles at Rome, a statue was erected to him 
as a God. (2) Justin, Irengeus, Theodoret, &c, Tertul- 
lian and St Augustine, all speak of the inscription, Simoni 
Deo Sancto, being on the statue. In the year 1574 a 
statue was dug up in the island of the Tiber, having an in- 
scription commencing, Semoni Sango Deo Fidio Sacrum, 
from which many have inferred that Justin mistook the 
statue dedicated to the Sabine deity for that of Simon. 

Q. What doctrines did Simon hold? Who subse- 
quently held them? 

A. At first he declared himself to be the great 
poiver of God; next, that the same Spirit which had 
descended on the phantom Jesus had descended on him- 
self, and at last added, that the Holy Ghost, by which 
God was revealed to the Gentiles, resided in himself. 
Menander, a Samaritan also, held the same tenets with 
some Gnostic additions. 

Q. Mention some other heresies of the first century. 

A. The Nicolaitans ; the Nazarenes, who urged the 
necessity of the observance of the Mosaic law ; the fol- 
lowers of Hymengeus and Philetus (2 Tim. ii. 17 ; 1 Cor. 
xv. 12) at Corinth, who denied the second resurrection, 
viz. that of the body ; the Cerinthians, who held that 
the world was made by angels, that Christ descended 
in the shape of a dove on the man Jesus, that circum- 
cision and other ceremonies ought to be retained, and 
that the Millennium would be a period of voluptuous ease ; 
the Ebionites held, in addition to the doctrines of the 
two last, that Christ was born of a mortal father. 

Q. How did the Gnostics distinguish the God of the 
Jews from that of the Christians ? 

A. They gave the name of Demiurgus to the God 
of the Jews, and supposed him to be descended from the 
supreme God, who had dwelt from all eternity in a Ple- 
roma of inaccessible light through a long succession of 
J^ons. They supposed all the seeds of life in this world 



78 HERESIES AND HERETICS [lECT. 

to be of three kinds ; of these the human Pneuma (Spirit) 
belonged to the world of light. The other two belonged 
to the Demiurgus, like the human Psyche, or else, like 
all bodies, and their in-dwelling evil principles, to the 
Hyle, or matter. The Pneumata, to obtain salvation, 
must be freed from the Demiurgus and matter, and thus 
become acquainted with, and return to, the supreme God. 
To accomplish this Christ, the highest JEon, came down 
upon earth. So that in fact the Christians were under 
the influence of the God of light, the Jews remained sub- 
ject to the Demiurgus, and the Heathen to the Hyle. 

Q. How did the Gnostics explain away the doctrines of 
the resurrection? 

A. They held that "before the coming of Christ the world 
was in ignorance of the true God. Christ revealed this God 
to the world : and they who received the revelation, rose again 
from the death of ignorance to perfect knowledge!' 

Q. What was their opinion concerning the state of the soul 
after death ? 

A . As the ei Gnostic baptism was a real resurrection, and 
the only resurrection ever intended, they taught, that the soul 
of the perfect Gnostic, having risen again at baptism, and being 
enabled by perfection of knowledge to conquer the Demiurgus, 
or Principle of Evil, would ascend as soon as it was freed from 
the body, to the heavenly Pleroma, and dwell there for ever 
in the presence of the Father : while the soul of him, who had 
not been allowed while on earth to arrive at such a plenitude of 
knowledge, would pass through several transmigrations, till it 
was sufficiently purified to wing its flight to the Pleroma." 
(Burtons Bampton Lectures.) 

Q. Who were the Gnostics of the Alexandrian school ? 

A. (l) Basilides (about the year 125), who taught 
that there emanated from the great First Cause seven 
./Eons, which composed the first world of spirits; that from 
this 365 other heavens successively' emanated, which to- 
gether are expressed by the mystic word Abraxas. 
(2) Valentinus, who came from Alexandria to Rome 
about a. d. 140, and died in Cyprus about the year 
160. He taught a different succession of iEons, which 
his followers Heracleon, Ptolemy, and Marcus modified in 



IX.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 79 

some degree. (3) The Ophites, who identified the serpent 
in Genesis with their Sophia, and their branches, the 
Sethians, Cainates, &c. held much the same doctrines 
as Valentinus. (4) Carpocrates, who considered Jesus a 
mere man, who had shewn how the Gnostic might free 
himself from the Demiurgus and unite himself with the 
supreme God. 

Q. Who was the chief of the Asiatic Gnostics? 
What opinions did he maintain? 

A. Saturninus, who was contemporary with Basi- 
lides. He taught (at Antioch) that from the first Great 
Principle was developed in successive gradations the world 
of Spirits, in the lowest grade of which he placed the 
angels of the seven planets, who created the world and 
the first parents of mankind, and that the Almighty, who 
was pleased with the work, gave to these human beings 
a rational soul : but Satan, who presided over matter, crem- 
ated, in opposition, an evil race of human beings, and gave 
them souls. In order to avoid all contact with the evil 
principle, his followers neither married, nor partook of 
animal food. 

Q. Give a striking instance of the prevalence of 
Gnostic opinions at this time. 

A. Bardesanes, of Edessa (about a.d. 172) taught 
that there was a good and an evil principle, and yet was 
held to be orthodox. 

Q. What principles did Tatian maintain ? 

A. That matter was the origin of all evil ; and there^ 
fore recommended the mortification of the body. He dis- 
tinguished the Creator of the world from the supreme 
Being, denied the reality of Christ's body, and corrupted 
the Christian religion by introducing philosophical tenets. 
His followers were called Encratites, or Continents. 

Q. Briefly notice the lives of Cerdon and Marcion. 

A. Cerdon, who was of the same school as Simon 
and Menander, came from Asia to Rome, and according 
to Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. in. 4, 3) he pretended several 



80 HERESIES AND HERETICS [lECT. 

times to adjure his errors, and to return to the Church ; 
but at last being convicted of impiety, he was excluded from 
the Christian communion. Marcion was the son of the 
Bishop of Sinope, in Pontus, whence being excluded from 
the Church for immorality, he went to Rome, became a 
follower of Cerdon, and the founder of a numerous sect. 
Some of the ancients say he maintained that there were 
three principles, one good, who was the Father of Jesus 
Christ ; one evil, which was the devil ; and a third, com- 
pounded of the other two, who was the Creator of the 
world. 

Q. Who was Montanus ? When did he live ? 

A. He is supposed to have been a priest of Cybele, 
and about 157 began to proclaim at Pepuza, on the bor- 
ders of Mysia and Phrygia, that the Paraclete had revealed 
himself to him, in order to give to the Church its full 
maturity. 

Q. What two disciples joined him ? 

A. Maximilla and Priscilla, who both had deserted 
their husbands. 

Q, What account does Ephinanius give of their belief 
and error ? 

A. That they believed in the Old and New Tes- 
taments, the resurrection of the dead, and held the Catho- 
lic doctrine of the Trinity ; but supposed that Montanus, 
Maximilla, and Priscilla, were divinely inspired, and made 
it an article of faith to believe in the spiritual gifts an- 
nounced by Montanus. 

Q. What rules did Montanus lay down ? 

A. He prescribed fasts, forbade second marriages, 
extolled celibacy and martyrdom ; he despised worldly 
things, and punished incontinence, murder, and idolatry, 
with perpetual exclusion from the Church : he also fore- 
told the approaching end of the world, and commencement 
of the Millennium. 

Q. Detail the steps that were taken to suppress 
Montanism. 



i 



IX. J OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 81 

A. The Bishops of Asia declared their new prophecies 
to be false, profane, and impious, condemned them, and 
excommunicated their authors. The Churches of Gaul 
having received an account of them from Asia also con- 
demned them. The Bishop of Rome (Eleutherus, or 
Victor) revoked the letters of communion which had been 
given to them. And Serapion, Bishop of Antioch, caused 
many bishops to take similar steps. 

Q. What appears to have been its subsequent 
fate? 

A. It subsisted for a length of time in Asia and 
Phrygia, where they were also called Cataphryges, or 
Pepuzemans, from the place where it began and nourished. 
Epiphanius says that towards the year 250 they wholly 
perverted the Church of Thyatira ; the Churches of Phry- 
gia, Galatia, and Cilicia were also infected. Tertullian 
embraced it in Africa about 200. But it was soon split 
into parties, one of which embraced the errors of Praxeas 
and Sabellius on the Trinity, and was finally merged into 
some other obscure sects. 

Q. What party ran into the opposite extreme? 

A. The Alogi, who denied the continuance of the 
gifts of the Holy Spirit in the Church, and the Mil- 
lennium, and rejected not only the Apocalypse, but the 
Gospel of St John* 

Q. What were the early heresies respecting the 
nature and character of Christ ? 

A. St Jerom says that the body of our Lord was 
declared to be a phantom, even while the Apostles were 
alive, and his blood was yet fresh in Judaea. Christ was 
declared to be one of the iEons of a higher rank. Some 
imagined that Jesus was a mere man, upon whom the 
JEon Christ descended at his baptism, and left him just 
before his crucifixion, so that Christ did not suffer the 
pains of death ; others again held, that the body in which 
Christ appeared, was not human and liable to suffering, 
but unsubstantial or aetherial, or at least immaterial. They 

4—5 



82 HERESIES AND HERETICS [lECT. 

agreed, however, in believing that his mission was truly 
to reveal the knowledge of the true God ; they denied 
the resurrection and final judgment, and thus explained 
away the true doctrine of the Atonement. The Ebionites 
rejected his miraculous conception and divine nature. 

Q. Give some account of Praxeas, Theodotus, and 
Artemon. 

A. Praxeas came from Asia to Rome about a.d. 200, 
and succeeded in restraining the bishop (Eleutherus or Vic- 
tor) from approving of Montanism. He afterwards asserted 
that the Son and Holy Ghost were only modes and opera- 
tions of the one being called God. Jh speaking of himself 
as a Monarchian (one who denied a plurality of persons in 
the Deity), he uses the same language as the modern 
Unitarians, and charges his opponents as believers in two 
or three Gods. Tertullian in writing against him shews 
that his doctrine must ultimately lead to the belief that 
the Father himself was born of the Virgin Mary, and 
therefore (as Jesus Christ) suffered on the cross. Hence 
the name of Patripassians was given to the sect. Theo- 
dotus, (although said to have been a tanner at Byzantium, 
appears to have been well acquainted with philosophy,) 
was accused of having once denied his faith to escape 
death. He came to Rome about the same time as Praxeas, 
where he taught the simple humanity of Christ, for which 
he was excluded from the Church. "His school (Theo- 
dotus, the money-changer, Asclepiades, Natalius the Con- 
fessor) continued to exist in Rome for some time, and by 
the similarity of their tenets brought the theory of Praxeas 
into such evil repute, that, when it was afterwards revived 
by Artemon, he was included in the same class as the 
Theodosians, and attacked as a heretic in various writings/' 
{Gieseler, Vol. i. p. 128). 

Q. What was the doctrine of Noetus, Beryllus, and 
Sabellius? 

A. Noetus was excommunicated at Smyrna (about 
the year 230) for teaching that Christ was a mere man. 



IX.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 83 

Beryllus, Bishop of Bostra, was induced to abandon this 
doctrine by Origen, at a council held at Bostra in Arabia 
in the year 244. A short time afterwards (a.d. 250 — 
260) Sabellius, a presbyter of Ptolemais, modified their 
opinions ; but while he seemed to own that there were 
three persons in the Godhead, he did not acknowledge 
them as distinct and really subsisting, but only as three 
different names and virtues. This Heresy subsisted for 
a long time in the East, where they were called Noe- 
tians and Sabellians. There were but few of them in 
the West, where they were denominated Patripassians. 

Q. Who attempted to refute Sabellius ? 

A. Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, both by letters 
and personal interviews ; but in his argument he was led 
to positions almost equally contrary to the Catholic doc- 
trine. 

Q. How did the first Heretical Bishop modify the 
Sabellian doctrine? 

A. As to the heresy of Paul of Samosata, it is 
difficult to determine what were his precise sentiments 
concerning the Person of Christ, though they were cer- 
tainly derogatory to the doctrine of His absolute divinity 
and eternal existence. Indeed, it is probable that he had 
not any clear view on the solemn subject on which he 
allowed himself to speculate ; nor was anxious to make 
proselytes and form a party in the Church. Ancient 
writers inform us that his heresy was a kind of Judaism 
in doctrine, adopted to please his Jewish patroness ; from 
the very object which he set before him, it was not likely 
to be very systematic or profound. His habits, too, as 
a sophist, would dispose him to employ himself in attacks 
upon the Catholic doctrine, and in irregular discussion, 
rather than in the sincere effort to obtain some definite 
conclusions, or satisfy his own mind or convince others. 
And the supercilious spirit, which the Synodal letter 
describes as leading him to express contempt for the 
divines who preceded him at Antioch, would naturally 



84 HERESIES AND HERETICS [LECT. 

occasion incaution in his theories, and a carelessness about 
guarding them from inconsistencies, even where he per- 
ceived them. 

Note : — A sect, it is true, was formed upon his tenets, and 
called after his name, and has a place in Ecclesiastical History 
till the middle of the 5th century; but it never was a con- 
siderable body, and even as early as the date of the Nicene 
Council had split into parties, differing by various shades of 
heresy from the orthodox faith. We shall have a more correct 
notion, then, of the heresy of Paulus, if we consider him as the 
founder of a school rather than of a sect, as encouraging in the 
Church the use of those disputations, and sceptical inquiries, 
which belonged to the heathen academies, and scattering up and 
down the seeds of errors, which sprang up and bore fruit in the 
generation after him. A confirmation of this view, which is 
suggested by the original vocation of Paulus, the temporal 
motives w T hich are said to have influenced him, and by his 
inconsistencies, is derived from the circumstance, that his in- 
timate friend and fellow-countryman, Lucian, who schismatized 
or was excommunicated on his deposition, held heretical tenets 
of a diametrically opposite nature, i. e. what were afterwards 
called Arian, Paulus himself advocating a doctrine which nearly 
resembled what is commonly called the Sabellian. (Neicmans 
History of the Avians, p. 5 — 7-) 

Q. What is known of the life of Manes ? 

A. That he was born in Persia, about the year 240, 
that he probably had been ordained a presbyter, and ex- 
pelled from the Christian community, and was put to death 
by the Persian government on the sixth of March, a.d. 
276 or 277. 

Q. Give his account of the creation of the world. 

A. He supposed that there were two kingdoms, one 
of light ruled by God, the other of darkness by the Dae- 
mon or Hyle ; that their material substances having been 
mingled during a war, God commanded the living Spirit 
to fashion our world out of this confused mass, and to 
restore it to the light : Christ and the Holy Ghost, who 
respectively resided in the sun and air, were sent, and 
effected this, in spite of the opposition of the daemon which 
resided in the stars. 



IX.] OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 85 

Q. What treatment did Manes and his followers 
experience ? 

A. Manes himself was put to death ; Diocletian 
issued a sanguinary edict against them ; the Theodosian 
code proscribed them ; the eastern sovereigns persecuted 
them as Paulicians ; and Leo the Great and subsequent 
Popes persecuted them in the most unrelenting manner. 

Q. Give a brief summary of the tenets of the Mani- 
cheans. 

A. They believed in the perfect divinity of Christ, 
and in the Trinity ; they received the sacraments of Bap- 
tism and the Lord's Supper, but used water instead of the 
wine (a criterion by which Pope Leo the Great detected 
them) in the latter. Considering matter the origin of 
evil, they denied the incarnation, circumcision, baptism, 
and temptation of our Lord, and maintained that the cru- 
cifixion and resurrection were not real, but only apparent. 
They also disbelieved in the resurrection of the flesh, and 
held that future punishments were of a purgatorial but not 
everlasting nature. (Waddington, ch. v. p. 152.) 

Q. Mention certain observances of the Manicheans. 

A. Easter, the Ascension, and probably the descent of the 
Holy Ghost, were festivals ; the Lord's-day was a fast. They 
rejected all temples, images, and altars. They consisted of the 
Elect (chiefly, though not all, clergy) and Hearers, both of whom 
were baptized. The mortification of the corrupt flesh, abstinence, 
and celibacy, were binding on the Elect, but only recommended 
to the Hearers. They directed their prayers towards the sun as 
the residence of Christ. Lastly, they maintained the institution 
of the three orders of the ministry to be Apostolical, but did not 
permit them to possess any property. 



86 THE CHURCH [LECT. 

Herture x. 

ON THE CHURCH AND ITS ATTRIBUTES. 



Q. What is " the only way to attain unto the 
knowledge of the true notion of the Church ?" 

A. " To search into the New Testament, and from 
the places there which mention it, to conclude what is the 
nature of it." (Pearson, Art. ix.) v 

Q. What points ought we to discuss as to the import 
of the word Ecclesia, which we render Church ? 

A. (l) Its derivation and meaning. (2) The object 
generally denoted by it. (3) Its particular use in the 
New Testament. 

Q. Give the derivation and import of the words 
Ecclesia and Church. 

A. Ecclesia (which means no more than k\yito\, or 
a company called and gathered together), comes from the 
Greek word eKKaXew, I call forth; and Church, in the 
English, as in the German and Teutonic languages, is de- 
rived from the Greek adjective KvpiaKrj, (which comes from 
Kvpios, the Lord, i. e. Christ ; and hence nvpiaKr} owia, the 
Lord's, i. e. Christ's House), which denotes " that which 
appertains to the Lord, i. e. Christ. 

Note : — The words Eglise (French), Chiesa (Italian), Igre- 
zia (Portuguese), and Iglesia (Spanish), and similarly of all the 
languages of Southern Europe, derived from provincial Latin, 
originate from the Ecclesia of the New Testament. 

Q. In what respects is the signification of 'EKKA^c/a more 
extensive than that of KvpiciKr} ? 

A. " The Church is not an assembly but a society. For 
although the name of the Church be given unto Christian assem- 
blies, although any number of Christian men congregated may be 
termed by the name of the Church, yet assemblies properly are 
rather things that belong to a Church. Men are assembled for the 
performance of public actions ; which actions being ended, that 



X.] AND ITS ATTRIBUTES. 87 

assembly dissolveth itself and is no longer in being, whereas the 
Church which was assembled doth no less continue afterwards 
than before." (Hookers Ecc. Polity, Book iii. 1, 14. See also 
Arehbp. Potter, on Church Government, ch. i. sects. 1, 2.) 

Q. What classes of persons did the name Eeclesia, 
which we render Church, generally denote ? 

A. (l) The whole assembly of men and angels (ex- 
cluding apostate men and angels) who worshipped the same 
God. (2) Those men and their descendants only, (exclud- 
ing idolaters and infidels), who from the beginning of the 
world had worshipped the one true God, their Creator and 
Redeemer. (3) Those only whose knowledge of the Re- 
deemer was direct and explicit ; i. e. the Christian Church 
(exclusive not only of unbelievers, but even of the true 
worshippers under the patriarchal and legal dispensations). 
This is the peculiar meaning of the word Church in the 
Creed and Gospel. 

Q. In what manner is the word Eeclesia used in the 
Xew Testament ? 

A. (l) Of the Greeks to denote political assemblies. 

(2) Of the Hellenist Jews to denote the assembly of the 
people of God under the Law. (3) To denote the collec- 
tion of Christians in a particular place, (or perhaps the 
place of assembly itself). (4) The society of believers 
as such. 

Q. How is the Church designated in the Creeds ? 

A. As One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic. 

Q. In what does the unity of the Church consist ? 

A. (1) " In the One Lord and Head, to whom all 
the body are by one Spirit united, and thus become one 
in the Father and in him. (2) In the one Faith, which 
belongs to each and every part of this one great whole. 

(3) In the unity of the Sacraments which are held through- 
out (viz. the one Baptism by which they are joined to this 
mystical body. The one Cup and Bread of salvation of 
which they all partake.) (4) In the one hope and calling 
which characterizes all, whether individuals or lesser com- 



88 THE CHURCH [lECT. 

munities, within the Church. (5) In the one mind and 
charity by which all parts of this great body are connected. 
(6) In the unity of discipline and government." (Dr 
Mill's Analysis of Pearson on the Creed. Art. ix.) 

Q. Does " the Church" always mean the universal 
Church? 

A. It does not, because we read of the Church of 
Antioch, the Church of Judaea, the Church in the house 
of Priscilla and Aquila, &c. (Acts xi. 22, xiii. 1 ; Rom. xvi. 
5, &c), where " the Church" is evidently confined to par- 
ticular persons, cities, and provinces. 

Q. How does the Creed shew this ? 

A. By applying to it the epithet " Catholic," which 
signifies general or universal. 

Q. Give authorities for saying that Catholic means 
general or universal. 

A. (l) Its derivation from kol6o\ikos 9 . (which is com- 
pounded of /caret, according to, and 0X09, whole,) proves 
it. (2) Theodoret, St Augustin, St Cyril of Jerusalem, 
use it in this sense. Some of the Apostolic epistles also, 
which are addressed to all Christians, are called Catholic. 

Q. Shew that the Church is Catholic (l) in its insti- 
tution ; (2) in its doctrines. 

A. (l) Our Saviour said to his disciples, "Go ye 
into all the world, and preach the Gospel to every crea- 
ture" (Mark xvi. 15) ; remission of sins was also " to be 
preached in his name among all nations" (Luke xxiv. 46). 
(2) It requires from its members universal personal holi- 
ness ; it professes universal charity ; it requires universal 
obedience to the word of God ; and it promises everlasting 
future happiness universally to all believers, of all ages 
and nations. 

Q. Why is the Church called holy ? 

A. (l) Because of its holy Author and vocation : 

(2) of the holy offices and powers with which it is endued ; 

(3) of the obligation to personal holiness imposed on its 
members ; (4) because God designed by it to make them 



X.] AND ITS ATTRIBUTES. 89 

personally holy ; (5) because St Paul (Ephes. v. 25, 27) 
styles it holy. 

Q. (l) What other attribute, besides being One, 
Holy, and Catholic, does the Church possess ? Why ? 
(2) What single Church claims for itself alone that title ? 
Shew that it is an unwarrantable assumption. 

A. It is called Apostolical because it is " built upon 
the foundation of the Prophets and Apostles, Jesus Christ 
being the chief corner-stone, (Ephes. ii. 20) ; because " the 
wall of the city had twelve foundations, and in them the 
names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb" (Rev. xxi. 14); 
and lastly, because it has continued stedfastly in the doc- 
trine and fellowship of the Apostles and their duly ap- 
pointed successors. (2) The Roman, which is no more 
the whole Church than the English or Greek Churches are 
at this day. 

Q. May we consider ourselves members of this One, 
Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church ? 

A. If we hold the truth with regard to the incar- 
nation, death, resurrection, and ascension of our Lord, 
together with the doctrines which he taught, and delivered 
by the Apostles ; if we rightly and duly receive the sacra- 
ments he instituted; and if we submit to the ordinances of 
his religion, and add to faith practice ; we undoubtedly 
may. 

Q. Although some of its members are not holy, shew 
that the Church may notwithstanding be holy. 

A. As the holiness of a parent cannot insure the 
holiness of his children, we must form our judgment of 
the holiness of the Church from the purity of its doctrines 
and institutions only; and as these are inherently holy, it 
is impossible to deprive it of this characteristic. 

Q. To preserve the Church perfectly holy, ought it 
not to expel unworthy members from its communion ? 

A. There may be many unworthy members who live 
and die within its pale, who, as they are guilty of no 
cognizable offence, must be tolerated and left, to God's 



90 THE CHURCH [lECT. 

judgment after death, as he is the only unerring judge; 
the Church can only excommunicate open and notorious 
offenders for example's sake. There was a Judas among 
the Apostles ; there were wicked men in the Church of 
Corinth ; there were Nicolaitans at Pergamos, and yet 
these and others similarly situated were recognized as 
Churches. Our Saviour's parables, (of the tares for in- 
stance, Matt. xiii. 24) are evidently directed to this point, 
and are quoted by St Cyprian, St Augustine, and other 
Catholic Fathers, to prove it against the dissenting Nova- 
tians and Donatists of old, and the same arguments are 
equally applicable to modern separatists. 

Q. The Constantinopolitan Creed gives to the Church 
the attributes of " One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolical f 
but is there not a prehminary difficulty to be examined? 
Explain it. 

A. Yes ; whether the Church of Christ is visible or 
invisible. With the exception of a very small body of 
Protestants it has been held that it was always visible 
(even during the prevalence of Arianism, and the Papal 
domination). Our Articles assert that it "is a congregation 
of faithful men, in the which the pure word of God is 
preached, and the Sacraments be duly administered accord- 
ing to Christ's ordinance in all things that of necessity are 
requisite to the same." (Art. 19. See also Arts. 20, 24, 
26, 33, 34, to prove that the visible Church has a ministry, 
decrees rites and ceremonies, determines controversies, and 
censures offenders, by authority). The invisible Church 
consists of persons, both in heaven and earth, from the 
foundation to the end of the world, known to God, but 
not to men with any certainty. 

Q. What, according to Bishop Butler, were the uses of a 
visible Church? 

A . " Miraculous powers were given to the first preachers of 
Christianity, in order to their introducing it into the world : a 
visible Church was established in order to continue it, and carry 
it on successively throughout all ages. Had Moses and the 
Prophets, Christ and his Apostles, only taught, and by miracles 



X.] AND ITS ATTRIBUTES. 91 

proved, religion to their contemporaries, the benefit of their in- 
structions would have reached but to a small part of mankind. 
Christianity must have been in a great degree sunk and forgot in 
a very few ages. To prevent this, appears to have been one 
reason why a visible Church was instituted; to be like a city 
upon a hill, a standing memorial to the world of the duty which 
we owe our Maker; to call men continually, both by precept 
and instruction, to attend to it, and by the form of religion ever 
before their eyes, remind them of the reality; to be the repository 
of the oracles of God ; to hold up the light of revelation in aid of 
that of nature, and propagate it throughout all generations to the 
end of the world." {Analogy, part n. c. 10.) 

Q. Can there be more than one Catholic Church ? 

A. No. Christ is represented in Scripture as the 
Head of the Church, which is called his spouse, &c. St 
Cyprian observes " God is one, and Christ is one, and 
there is but one Church, and one faith." " That Church 
is called one, which is extended far and wide, and still 
admits of increase in the multitudes of its professors," &c. 
{De Unitate JEccl.) 

Q. Is there salvation out of the pale of this Church ? 

A. That it is only to be obtained in the Church, 
after it has been sufficiently proposed to any one, is clear 
from Scripture, thus : " Christ is the head of the body, 
the Church" (Col. i. 18); therefore those who are not in 
the Church are separated from Christ and his body, the 
Church. He also is the Saviour of this body (Ephes. v. 23) ; 
again "the Lord added to the Church daily {tovs aoofy- 
juevovs) such as should be saved." The Catholic Fathers 
uniformly assert the same. Theophilus of Antioch (p. 53) 
says, "those who desired salvation took refuge (in the 
Church)." Origen (p. 59) says, " without the Church no 
one is saved." Cyprian (p. 57) asserts that "he cannot 
be a martyr who is not in the Church." " That man 
cannot have God for his Father who has not the Church 
for his mother. If any one could escape the deluge out 
of Noah's ark, he who is out of the Church may also 
escape." {De Unitate EccL) 



92 THE GOVERNMENT [lECT. 

Eerture xi. 

ON THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH. 



Q. What was the form of Church government 
whilst our Saviour was on earth ? 

A. (l) At first the whole ministry was vested in his 
own person, and he is styled our Apostle, Prophet, and 
Evangelist, our Bishop, Master or Teacher, and Deacon. 
(2) When the harvest became so great that he could not 
attend to all, he took unto him twelve Apostles ; gathering 
his disciples, and choosing out of them whom he would. 
He called them to him, they came, and were named 
Apostles. These he began to send, and gave them in 
charge to Preach the Gospel, to Heal the Sick, and to 
Cast out Devils. He gave them power to take Main- 
tenance, and to Shake off the Dust for a witness. So he 
sent them ; they went and preached, they returned, and 
related what they had done and taught. (3) When the 
harvest became so great that the twelve were not sufficient, 
he then took unto him the seventy; these he appointed 
and sent by two and two into every city and place, 
whither he himself would come. He gave unto them (as 
to the Apostles) power to take Maintenance ; Shake off 
the Dust ; Heal the Sick ; Preach ; Tread upon serpents 
and scorpions ; and to be superior to the power of the 
enemy. 

Note : — None of the Fathers ever doubted that these were 
two separate orders, or that the Apostles were superior to the 
seventy. 

Q. Full Apostolic power was not conferred on the 

Apostles at their first ordination, but at three different 

periods. What were they ? 

A. (I) Our Lord solemnly chose them to be his 



XI.] OF THE CHURCH. 93 

attendants and ministers, and to preach ; and as he did 
not baptize himself, they must have done so. Their office 
was then no higher than that of our Deacons. (2) After 
this he commanded them to commemorate his death. 
They became Presbyters. (3) When he was about to 
leave the world, in addition to all their other power, they 
were then authorized to ordain and send others. 

Q. Shew that our Saviour entrusted equal authority 
to all the Apostles. 

A. Peter was evidently " the foreman of the College 
of Apostles, whilst our Lord lived on earth ; and it is 
plain he kept the same dignity, at least for some time 
after his ascension." But they all had the same name 
and commission ; they all attended their Master and were 
authorized to preach, &c. ; " Yet upon Peter, being one, 
he builds his Church to manifest unity a commence- 
ment is made from unity, that the Church may be set 
before us as one." (Cyprian, De Unit. JEccl.) 

Q. Shew that every Apostle exercised a particular 
authority over the Churches which he had founded. 

A. St Paul wrote in an authoritative style to those 
Churches which had been founded by himself (1 Cor. iv. 
14 — 16, &c), whereas he only exhorts, persuades and 
entreats those founded by others (as the Romans, Colos- 
sians, &c.) 

Q. Why are we not to expect so distinct an account 
of the ministers in the Apostolic, as in the succeeding 
ages ? 

A. (l) Because many of its ministers were extra- 
ordinary persons. (2) Because the historical parts of 
the New Testament are so short, that they often only 
relate the first founding of Churches. But the Apostles, 
after establishing a Church, generally left some one behind 
to instruct the disciples, and on a second visit ordained 
those whom they found qualified for ■ ministers. When 
St Paul left Titus in Crete he commissioned him to ordain 
ministers. (3) The Apostolic Epistles, as they were de- 



94 THE GOVERNMENT [LECT. 

signed for the instruction only of converts, had no occasion 
to speak of the government of the Church, which the 
Apostles either kept in their own hands, or entrusted to 
persons chosen hy themselves (St Paul had set Timothy 
and Titus over the Churches of Ephesus and Crete). 
They were merely exhorted in general terms to submit to 
their ministers. 

Q. What ministers appear to have belonged to the 
Church at Jerusalem ? 

A. Besides the twelve Apostles and James its Bishop, 
there were seven ordained Deacons, who were ministers of 
tables, who preached and baptized; and we find as soon 
as James becomes prominent, (i. e. Bishop) presbyters are 
mentioned as having some power of government (Acts xii.) 

Q. Three orders are spoken of at Antioch. 

A. The Gospel had been preached by some who 
went there upon the persecution which arose about Ste- 
phen. Barnabas was sent to confirm them, and he fetched 
Saul from Tarsus to assist him, but neither of them had 
been as yet owned to be Apostles; so that there were 
then at Antioch the original teachers, and Saul and Barna- 
bas, and probably others who were prophets. But when 
inspired men, according to the command of the Holy 
Ghost, had set Saul and Barnabas apart for another work, 
they then became acknowledged Apostles, and thus the 
three orders existed at the same time. 

Q. From St Paul's Epistles to Timothy and Titus, 
what conclusions may be drawn as to their official posi- 
tion? 

A. (1) The expressions in the Epistles to Timothy, 
" Stir up the gift of God, which is in thee by the laying 
on of my hands," (II. i. 6) ; " Charge some that they 
teach no other doctrine," (I. i. 3); "These things com- 
mand and teach," (I. iv. 11) ; " The same commit thou 
to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also," 
(II. ii. 2); "Against an elder receive not an accusation, 
but before two or three witnesses. Them that sin re- 



XI.] OF THE CHURCH. 95 

buke before all men, that others may fear ; lay hands 
suddenly on no man," (I. v. 19, 20, 22) ; all shew that 
St Paul by the laying on of his hands had communicated 
to him some special gift; that he was to govern and 
rebuke even elders; and that he was to ordain faithful 
men to teach others; and lastly that he was to fulfil his 
instructions "until the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ." 
(I. vi. 14). (2) The following portions of the Epistle to 
Titus, " For this cause left I thee in Crete, that thou 
shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and 
ordain elders in every city, as I had appointed thee," 
(i. 5) ; " These things (as to the behaviour of bishops 
and others) speak, and exhort, and rebuke with all au- 
thority. Let no man despise thee," (ii. 15) ; "A man 
that is an heretic, after the first and second admonition, 
reject," (hi. 10) ; shew that he also had power to rule 
the Church, to ordain ministers, to exhort and rebuke 
all men, and to reject heretics. 

Q. Prove that the seven Angels (Rev. i. ii. hi.) were 
so many single persons invested with supreme authority in 
the seven Churches of Asia. 

A. Our Saviour writes thus to the Angel of the 
Church of Ephesus, " I know thy works ;" of Smyrna, 
" Be thou faithful ;" and so of the others : the Epistles 
to their Churches are directed to them; they are com- 
pared to the stars, which give light to the world, (as Christ 
himself was, John i. 5) ; they are called angels, who were 
the messengers of God, just as the Apostles were of 
Christ ; they are praised and blamed as if they had 
authority over others ; so that we need not scruple to 
call them with St Austin and other Catholic Doctors, 
" Episcopos sive Praepositos Ecclesiarum, the Bishops, or 
Presidents of the Churches." 

Q. How can it be shewn that there were Bishops in these 
Churches at or about this time ? 

A. Ignatius mentions Onesimus, Bishop of Ephesus. Poly- 
crates, its eighth bishop, in an Epistle to Yictor says, " Seven of 



96 THE GOVERNMENT [lECT. 

my kinsmen have been bishops, and I am the eighth/' and Leon- 
tius, Bishop of Magnesia, publicly declared at the Council of 
Chalcedon (a.d. 451), "that there had been twenty -seven bishops 
(of Ephesus) from Timothy up to that time." Ignatius distinctly 
names Polycarp as Bishop of Smyrna. Irenseus says he was 
ordained its bishop by the Apostles. Tertullian affirms that they 
"trace their succession through Polycarp to the Apostle John, 
by whom he was appointed the first Bishop of their Church." 

Q. What doctrine does our Church hold on the form 
of Church Government ? 

A. She asserts that it is evident " from Scripture 
and ancient authors," that three orders of the Ministry are 
necessary for constituting a Church. 

Q. Whence are their names derived, and to what 
officers of the Jewish Church do they correspond ? 

A. Bishop is derived from 'E7r/o7co7ros, an inspector 
of others; Presbyter or Priest is derived from Tlpeafiv- 
Tepos, a superior in age and station; and from Aiclkovos, 
one who serves or ministers, comes Deacon; who severally 
corresponded to the Jewish High-Priest, Priests, and Le- 
vites. 

Q. Why were the successors of the Apostles called 
Bishops ? 

A. Probably because the term had already been 
used by the Septuagint translators, in which the apostacy 
of Judas is foretold, " his €7naK07rr] let another take." 

Q. Quote the sentiments of some of the ancient authors. 

A . Clemens Romanus thus expresses himself : " So also our 
Apostles knew by our Lord Jesus Christ, that contentions should 
arise on account of the ministry. And therefore, having a perfect 
foreknowledge of this, they appointed persons, (the first-fruits of 
their conversions, to be bishops and deacons, c. 42), and then gave 
a direction in what manner, when they should die, other chosen 
and approved men should succeed in their ministry." (Clemens 
Eomanus, c. 44, translated by Chevallier). Ignatius, in his Epistle 
to the Magnesians, says, "As the Lord did nothing without the 
Father, being united in him, neither by himself nor yet by his 
Apostles, in like manner do ye nothing without the Bishop and 
the Presbyters." To the Trallians, "Let all reverence the Deacons 
as Jesus Christ, and the Bishop as the Father; and the Presbyters 



XI.] OF THE CHURCH. 97 

as the Council of God, and the Assembly of the Apostles. With- 
out these there is no Church." Irenseus says, " TVe are able to 
give a catalogue of the names of those who were appointed Bishops 
by the Apostles, and their successors, even to our own times." 
Tertullian, " If there be any heretics that venture to date from 
the Apostles let them make known the originals of their Churches ; 
let them unfold the roll of their Bishops so coming down from 
the beginning, that their first Bishop had for his ordainer and 
predecessor some one of the Apostles, or of Apostolic men, so he 
were one that continued steadfast with the Apostles." Cyprian, 
"Bishops are rulers who succeed the Apostles, vicaria ordina- 
tione." 

Q. How are Bishops derived from God ? 

A. Our Saviour was made the head of the Church 
by his Father, and consecrated by the visible descent of 
the Holy Ghost; he appointed the Apostles and sent the 
Holy Ghost to them, and commissioned them similarly to 
appoint others until his second coming. 

Q. How does Scripture and practice bear out this view? 

A. Immediately after the ascension the Apostles ap- 
pointed Matthias, and for fifteen hundred years no other 
form was admitted than that of Bishops, who successively 
ruled over the clergy as well as the people. 

Q. What other fact bears out this view ? 

A. That even heretics of all kinds, with the single 
exception of Aerius (who was anathematized for his de- 
parture from this mode of government) acknowledged the 
necessity of having Bishops for their governors. 

Q. Quote the opinions of two writers of our own on 
this subject. 

A. Hooker (Eccl. Polity, vn. 5, 10), in concluding 
his argument in favour of Apostolical succession, says, "Let 
us not fear to be herein bold and peremptory, that if any 
thing in the Church's government, surely the first insti- 
tution of Bishops was from heaven, was even of God, the 
Holy Ghost was the author of it." Bishop Pearson on 
Ignatius says, "jNo writer of the second century ever 
gave to a presbyter the title of Bishop, or that of a 
Bishop to a presbyter." 
5 



98 THE GOVERNMENT [lECT. 

Q. Is the same person ever called a Presbyter and 
a Bishop ? 

A. He was a Presbyter as to his personal character, 
a Bishop as to his official capacity, or, as Theodoret ex- 
presses it, " The same persons were once called both 
Bishops and Presbyters; but those who are now called 
Bishops were formerly called Apostles; for in process of 
time the Apostolic name was reserved for those who were 
really Apostles." 

Q. How come the Apostles to speak of Churches 
being governed by Presbyters? 

A. The Apostles themselves Ibeing the real Bishops 
were not called upon to make the distinction between the 
Presbyteri and Episcopi. 

Q. What order did St Paul establish ? 

A. That persons appointed by his own sole au- 
thority should perform all the duties of a Bishop with 
respect to the Presbyters and Deacons, and that he was 
to complete arrangements which the Apostle had left un- 
finished. 

Q. Does any other Apostle speak of individual gover- 
nors of the Churches ? 

A. St John in the Revelation speaks of every one 
of the seven Churches of Asia as having a head called an 
Angel. 

Q. What is Mosheim's opinion as to the origin of 
deacons, and where they are first mentioned ? 

A. That they were the servants of the Church from 
its first foundation. That they were the young men who 
carried out the corpses of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts v. 
6, 10). 

Q. How does Mosheim shew that v ear epos means a 
deacon ? 

A. He contends that our Lord himself appears to 
give this sense to the word, when (in Luke xxii. 26) he 
says 6 fiei^wv ev vjuuv, yeveaOco cos o vecorepos. Christ 
himself explains the term jue/^aw, by jjyovfieuosy and it 



XI 



.] OF THE CHURCH. 99 



therefore is equivalent to ruler or presbyter : and instead 
of vewrepos, he in the next clause uses 6 iiaicovwv, con- 
sequently Slcikovwv and veoorepos are synonymous. The 
passage of 1 Peter v. 5, is still more explicit. St Peter, 
having solemnly exhorted the Presbyters not to abuse the 
power that was committed to them, adds 6/ulo'uos, veturepoi, 
virorayrfTe toTs TrpeafivTepois. 

Q. How does Mosheim explain the account which is 
given in the Acts of the appointment of Deacons ? 

A. He conceives that there had been a class of 
Deacons composed of Jewish Christians born in Palestine, 
who attended the Apostles at an early period, but " as 
they appeared to act with partiality in the distribution of 
alms among the native and foreign Jewish Christians, 
seven other Deacons were chosen by order of the Apostles, 
out of that part of the Church at Jerusalem which was 
composed of strangers, or Jews of foreign birth. (Acts vi. 
1, &c.) Six of these new Deacons were foreign Jews, as 
appears from their names ; the other one was from among 
the proselytes. The example of the Church of Jerusalem 
was followed by all the other Churches, in obedience to the 
injunctions of the Apostles ; and of course they likewise 
appointed Deacons (1 Tim. hi. 8, 9)." 

Q. What is Mosheim's account of the form of govern- 
ment in the primitive Church? Upon what texts of 
Scripture did he ground his opinion ? 

A. That each Church was composed of the people, 
the presiding officers, and the assistants or deacons ; but 
that the people were undoubtedly the first in authority, 
as appears from the Acts of the Apostles (i. 15 ; vi. 3 : 
xv. 4 ; xxi. 22). 

Q. Shew that the text (Acts vi. 3) does not prove 
his assertion. 

A. According to St Luke there were only 120 per- 
sons present at St Matthias's election, whereas it appears 
from St Paul (1 Cor. xv. 6) there were 500 believers in 
Jerusalem at this very time. Moreover the Apostles said, 

5—2 



100 THE GOVEENMENT [lECT. 

Look ye out candidates " whom we (not ye) may appoint 
over this business." 

Q. Why does St Luke's account of the controversy 
concerning the necessity of circumcision, give no countenance 
to the authority of the multitude in the primitive Church ? 

A. The deputation was sent from Antioch to Jerusa- 
lem to consult " the Apostles and Elders about this ques- 
tion, " and not the people ; then, the Apostles and elders 
came together to consider of this matter ; no mention being 
made of the multitude except that it kept silence. The 
mention of the brethren in the epistle sent was only the 
common style of such documents. 

Q. Mosheim quotes the Acts xxi. 22, " The multi- 
tude must needs come together; for they will hear that 
thou art come," to shew that the people were first in 
authority. Shew that it is inappropriate. 

A. If the people really possessed the supreme au- 
thority, St James and the elders would have called them 
together to hear St Paul's report of the things God had 
done among the Gentiles, and not have left the matter to 
their zeal or caprice, nor would the proposed precaution 
have been adopted. St James and St Paul knew that the 
obligation of the Mosaic law had ceased. This, however, 
was not known to the great body of Jewish Christians at 
Jerusalem. Surely men who were so ignorant of the true 
principles of Christianity were unfit to govern a Church ? 

Q. At what period, according to Mosheim, was a 
fixed president placed over the Presbyters at Jerusalem ? 
With what jurisdiction ? 

A. On the dispersion of the Apostles : the jurisdic- 
tion of such presidents (then called Angels, but afterwards 
Bishops), during the first and second centuries only ex- 
tended over one assembly, which was generally held in a 
private house. (For a disproval of this, see the account of 
St James, in p. 17.) 

Q. What was the origin of Dioceses, Provinces, and 
Parishes ? 



XI.] OF THE CHURCH. 101 

A. In the time of Constantine the Eastern and 
Western Empires were each divided into seven districts, 
called Dioceses (SioiKtjcreis), which comprised about one 
hundred and eighteen Provinces {eirap-^im) ; each Pro- 
vince contained several cities, each of which had a district 
ijrapoiKLa) attached to it ; the Ecclesiastical Rulers of 
the Dioceses were called Patriarchs, Exarchs, or Arch-- 
bishops, of whom there were fourteen; the rulers of the 
Provinces were styled Metropolitans (i.e. governors of the 
/uLr}Tpo7ro\i$ or mother-city), and those of each city and 
its district were called Bishops. So that the division which 
we now call a Diocese, in ancient times was a union of 
dioceses, and a Parish was a combination of modern 
parishes. 

Q. Mention the principal privileges of Patriarchs. 

A. (l) To ordain all the Metropolitans of the dio- 
cese, and to receive their own ordination from a Diocesan 
Synod. (2) To call Diocesan Synods, and to preside 
over them. (3) To receive appeals from Metropolitan 
Synods. (4) To censure Metropolitans, and also their 
suffragans when Metropolitans were remiss in censuring 
them. (5) They might delegate Metropolitans as their 
commissioners to hear Ecclesiastical causes in any part of 
the Diocese. (6) They were to be consulted by Metro- 
politans in all matters of moment. (7) To communicate 
to their Metropolitans such imperial laws as concerned the 
Church, so that the Metropolitans might notify them to 
the Provincial Bishops. (8) Absolution of great criminals 
was reserved for them. (9) They were absolute and 
independent of each other. 

Q. What were the principal duties of Metropolitans ? 

A. (l) To regulate the elections of the Provincial 
Bishops, and either to consecrate or authorize then 1 con- 
secration. (2) To preside over the Provincial Bishops, 
and to decide controversies. (3) To call Provincial Sy- 
nods, which all the Bishops were bound to attend. (4) To 
publish such Imperial laws and canons as were made 



102 THE GOVERNMENT [LECT. 

either by the Emperors or Councils for the common good 
of the Church. (5) To give commendatory letters to 
such of the Bishops as had occasion to travel. (6) To 
take care of their vacant sees, and to procure a speedy 
election of a new Bishop. 

Q. Give some account of the religious assemblies of 
the early Church. 

A. Pliny in his letter to Trajan, says, that the Chris- 
tians assembled together on a fixed day ; Justin Martyr 
calls it " Sunday" or " the Lord's day ;" Ignatius the day 
"of the resurrection;" and others, "the day of light;" 
many no doubt assembled at other times. As they fre- 
quently met at day-break, and sometimes at night, their 
assemblies were called antelucani, and themselves luci- 
fugce, or light-haters. They had no churches or buildings 
set apart for their worship, but quietly assembled in the 
most retired places. 

Q. After what manner were the assemblies of the 
early Christians conducted? 

A. Portions of the Old and New Testaments were 
first read, and then the prayers, (according to a stated 
form), by the priest or minister, the congregation standing 
up on the Lord's day, but on other days kneeling towards 
the east. They chiefly prayed for all classes of Chris- 
tians, for the civil powers, and peace, the people adding 
aloud at the end of each prayer, "Amen." Pliny says, 
" the Christians in their assemblies sang hymns to Christ 
as God," which confirms St Paul's account (1 Cor. xiv. 26). 
The sermon or exhortation succeeded ; the sacramental 
bread and wine was distributed to the faithful ; collections 
were made for charitable purposes ; (on some occasions the 
martyrs were commemorated, and censures pronounced on 
oiFending members) ; and after taking a sacrament or oath, 
not to commit any immorality, they saluted each other and 
separated, to return again for the love-feast (dydirfi), of 
which all the members of the Church partook. 

Q. Mention some particulars relating to the Agapa?. 



XI.] OF THE CHURCH. 103 

A. Pliny observes, that the Christians met on a 
stated day, in a harmless manner, to eat bread in common. 
At first they did so before the Eucharist, in the evening, 
in the place appointed for their religious meetings, and 
occasionally at the sepulchres of the martyrs. At a later 
period they met in their Churches, after the Eucharist ; 
but, owing to some irregularities, it was enacted in the 
fourth and subsequent centuries that they should not be 
held in Churches. 

Q. Give an account of the Catechumens. 

A. They were the Karri^ov /uevoi, or learners, who 
were candidates for baptism. They were styled candidates 
(candidi), because they wore a white dress on their ad- 
mission into the Church. Schools were instituted for their 
instruction, and a particular Church service was adapted 
for their use. There was no specific rule as to their age 
at admission into, or how long they were to continue, in 
that class. It varied at different times, and according to 
the different usages of separate Churches ; especially ac- 
cording to the proficiency of each individually. Bingham 
asserts that they were divided into four classes, (l) Those 
who were subject to private instruction. (2) Such as re- 
ceived public instruction. (3) Those who were occupied 
with devotional exercises. (4) Those who were duly 
qualified for baptism. This is a convenient, but un- 
authorized classification. 

Q. Describe the manner of celebrating the Holy 
Eucharist. 

A. In some places it was celebrated every day, in 
others on Wednesdays and Fridays, and in others on the 
Lord's-day only. It was administered to those who were 
in full communion with the Church before they broke their 
fast, (sometimes early in the morning). If necessary, it 
was carried by the minister to the sick. The elements 
were ordinary leavened bread, and wine mixed with water. 
Justin calls it the Eucharistic wine and water, but Cyprian 
observes that it was not by Christ's command that the 



104 THE GOVERNMENT [lECT. 

mixture was used. The Bishop or Presbyter consecrated 
the elements according to the usual solemn form, and the 
Deacons assisted in their distribution. 

Q. State some particulars relating to Baptism. 

A. We learn from Irenseus and Tertullian, that in- 
fants were capable of receiving baptism. Tertullian also 
mentions sponsors, who undertook to see that the child 
was educated as a Christian. Adults first became cate- 
chumens, then competents, and lastly the faithful and 
perfect. After serious preparation the Sacrament was 
generally administered by the Bishop or Presbyter at 
Lent and Whitsuntide, sometimes in fountains or rivers, 
sometimes in bed {clinical baptism), in houses, or in pri- 
sons ; sometimes over the tombs of the martyrs ; and 
lastly, even the dead are said to have been occasionally 
baptized. The candidates were generally dipped three 
times in the name of the Trinity. Tertullian speaks of 
their being afterwards anointed with oil ; they also tasted 
honey and milk ; in the case of adults the other Sacrament 
was administered immediately afterwards, and in the time 
of St Augustine the communion of infants was generally 
allowed. Tertullian advocates the postponing of baptism 
until the age of puberty, and it was not unusual in after- 
times to delay it for several years, and sometimes even to 
the hour of death. 

Q. Mention some of the rites and ceremonies of the 
Antenicene Church. 

A. The principal feast-days were the Lord's-day, 
Easter, Pentecost, and their vigils, and subsequently the 
day of the Ascension. The most solemn fast was the eve 
of the Crucifixion ; some fasted on Wednesdays, others on 
Fridays, and others on both. The week before Easter 
was a marked fast, and was called Quadragesima, from the 
hours during which it continued; but even Tertulhan ad- 
mits that the public fasts were not compulsory. The 
anniversaries of the deaths of the martyrs were kept as 
feasts, and offerings were also made on the same days by 



XI 



.] OF THE CHURCH. 105 



the opulent in memory of departed relatives, for the use 
of the poor and widows. Prayers were offered for all 
who had died in the Christian faith. Crosses made of 
metal were also worn to distinguish the Christian from the 
Heathen. The custom of exorcising demons, especially at 
baptism, was observed, and the power of working miracles 
was supposed still to exist in the Church. 

Q. Who next to the Apostles possessed the power of 
working miracles ? 

A. It was not continued beyond those disciples upon 
whom the Apostles conferred it by the laying on of hands. 

Q. When was it probably withdrawn ? 

A. As the number of those on whom the Apostles 
had conferred it diminished, the instances of miraculous 
powers would gradually diminish, and cease entirely when 
the last one died, which would be about the middle of the 
second century. 

Q. Why is Ecclesiastical History silent as to the 
period of the cessation of miraculous gifts ? 

A. The prejudiced would be unwilling to believe in 
the cessation of the power, and the politic would not be un- 
willing to avoid the question by asserting in general terms 
that it existed. The Fathers affirm that miracles were 
performed, but they rarely produce a specific instance. 
Less scrupulous followers invented them, and their success 
led to continued impositions. 

Q. Why do Gibbon and Middleton deny that mira- 
culous powers continued in the primitive Church ? 

A. Because the Fathers (such as Irenaeus and Ter- 
tullian) do not produce specific examples. 

Q. Is this answer satisfactory ? 

A. Irenasus might feel that it was useless to allege 
them to those (heretics) who denied what was so notorious 
to all ; but as he speaks of persons who had been raised 
from the dead being so poor as to require pecuniary assist- 
ance, and mentions that some so raised had lived for a 
number of years afterwards, he must have been familiar 

5—5 



106 THE GOVERNMENT [LECT. 

with such instances, although he allows they were only- 
granted in urgent cases to the prayers of the whole 
Church. 

Q. Does Tertullian quote any specific instances of 
miraculous powers being exercised ? 

A. In his Apology, when contending that the Heathen 
Gods were demons, he asserts that if one possessed by 
them were brought before a Christian, it would obey him, 
and go out at once. 

Q. Tertullian relates a specific miracle. Give some 
account of it. 

A. Tertullian asserts in his Apology, that Marcus 
Antoninus became a protector to the Christians, because 
he and his army were, during an expedition into Ger- 
many, relieved from perishing by thirst by a shower of 
rain which fell in answer to the prayers of the Chris- 
tians in his army. To prove this he quotes a letter of 
the Emperor, which he does not affirm that he had 
seen, in which he ascribes the deliverance to this cause. 
Now several Heathen writers record the facts, but Dion 
Cassius gives the credit of it to the magical acts of an 
Egyptian, and the Antonine column ascribes it to Jupiter 
Pluvius, which at once disproves Tertullian's statement 
as to the Emperor's letter, and is confirmed by the harsh 
treatment which the Christians experienced from this Em- 
peror. There is no necessity for appealing to a miracle : 
the army was in distress, the Christians in it of course 
prayed, and a shower fell at a critical period; all were 
grateful, but although pious individuals might with justice 
be convinced of the reality of the miracle, it is more akin 
to superstition than religion to believe that God specially 
interfered on such an occasion. (This is the view taken 
by the Bishop of Lincoln, but many sober-minded authors 
see no difficulty in regarding the transaction as miracu- 
lous.) 

Q. Explain what is meant by the "secret discipline" 
of the early Church. 



XI 



.] OF THE CHURCH. 107 



A. We cannot learn, either from the Scriptures, the 
Apostolic Fathers, or Justin Martyr, that anything relative 
to their faith was to be concealed from the members of the 
Church. But, (probably owing to the persecutions and 
profane interruptions of the heathen), not only were un- 
believers, but catechumens also, precluded from any know- 
ledge of the time, place, or manner of the celebration of 
the Sacraments. Irenasus, Tertullian, and Clemens Alex- 
andrinus, are the first who mention this custom. It fell 
into disuse after the time of Constantine. (See Lect. iv.) 

Q. Certain valuable documents are alleged to be of 
early origin. Give some account of them. 

A. They are the " Apostolical Constitutions and 
Canons." Clemens Romanus is their reputed author, but 
it is generally supposed they were chiefly compiled in the 
second and third centuries, and did not assume their present 
form until the fifth. The eight books of the Constitutions 
contain the " rules and regulations of Christians in general, 
the constitution of the Church, the offices and duties of 
ministers, and the celebration of divine worship. The 
tone of morality which runs through them is severe and 
ascetic. The Canons relate chiefly to various particulars 
of Ecclesiastical polity and Christian worship ; the regu- 
lations which they contain being for the most part sanc- 
tioned with the threatening of deposition and excommuni- 
cation against offenders." 

[§. What is known of the early life of Constan- 
tine? 

A. He was born a.d. 274, and passed his early 
years at the court of Diocletian. When Galerius, after 
the abdication of Diocletian, created Severus and Maxi- 
mums Caesars, without noticing Constantine's claims, and 
even attempted his life, he fled to Britain to his father 
Constantius Chlorus, and at his death, in the year 306, 
was there proclaimed emperor. 

Q. Into what periods may his life be divided as far 
as concerns Christianity? 



108 THE GOVERNMENT [LECT, 

A. (l) From the issuing of the edict of Milan, in the 
year 313, to the assembling of the Council of Nice, in 325, 
during which period, although he tolerated all religions, he 
in fact established Christianity. (2) From a.d. 325 to 
a.d. 333, in which he assisted in fixing the doctrines and 
discipline of the Church. (3) From the year 333 to his 
death in 337, during which he openly opposed heathenism.] 

Q. Under what circumstances is Constantine said to 
have been converted to Christianity ? 

A. By seeing, as he was marching towards Rome (to 
encounter Maxentius, a.d. 312), at the head of his army, 
at noon-day, a luminous cross suspended in the air, with 
this inscription-— Tovrco vWa — By this conquer, and in 
the night of the same day, by our Saviour appearing to 
him bearing a similar cross, and desiring him to make a 
military standard of the same shape. 

Q. Some doubt the truth of this account. Why ? 

A. Because Eusebius is the only contemporary author 
who mentions it, and that only in his " Life of Constan- 
tine," written six-and-twenty years afterwards, subsequently 
to the death of the Emperor, and upon his authority alone, 
whereas the story must have been known to everybody, 
and even to the author himself. There might have been 
some foundation for it in Constantine's own mind, which 
after his victory might be strengthened, as the standard 
was really used in subsequent times. 

Q, Some suspect the sincerity of Constantine's con- 
version. Why ? 

A. Because his putting to death his eldest son, his 
other cruelties and excesses, and his deferring his baptism 
to his last illness, were all inconsistent with the character 
of a sincere Christian. But surely every one must admit 
that he was not inferior to any of his pagan predecessors 
in moral worth. As to Christianity, he had publicly and 
consistently shewn the sincerity of his belief in its truth 
by protecting and fostering it for a great number of years, 
and in deferring his baptism, he only did what was very 



XI.] OF THE CHURCH. 109 

usual at that time, under the idea, if then administered, 
that the salvation of the recipient was undoubted. 

Q. Enumerate some of the changes which Constan- 
tine effected in the internal administration of the Church. 

A. He confirmed by law to the Church everything 
which had by its customs become part of its constitution. 
He granted to the clergy exemption from performing civil 
offices, and to their higher orders an independent juris- 
diction over the whole clerical body. He also enforced, 
by the civil power, the awards which the Bishops had 
been accustomed to give, when the Christians, to evade 
the heathen magistrates, had voluntarily submitted to their 
judgment, and thus laid the foundation of all subsequent 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 

Q. In what manner did he regulate the external 
economy of the Church? 

A. He assumed the complete control over its affairs. 
He appointed judges to decide all religious controversies 
both between the people and the clergy, and to define 
the limits of ecclesiastical provinces. He also, whilst he 
left the management of Provincial Synods to the Church, 
established as a right the power of convoking its general 
councils. 



HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 



PART THE SECOND. 

FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE COUNCIL OF NICE TO 
THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE REFORMATION. 



iCerture I. 

ON THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 

Q. Who was Arius ? 

A. A presbyter of the Church, and, as some sup- 
pose, master of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. 
He was so eminent for his learning and abilities, that 
he is said to have contested the primacy of the ^Egyptian 
Church with Alexander, on the death of Achillas, a.d. 312. 

Q. Under what circumstances did he first publish 
his heresy? 

A. Alexander having, in an assembly of the pres- 
byters of Alexandria, expressed his sentiments on the doc- 
trine of the three Persons in the Godhead with great 
freedom, Arius openly accused him of Sabellianism. This 
charge being but feebly answered, a party (which was 
joined by the Meletian schismatics) was immediately formed 
against the Bishop by Arius, Colluthus, and others. 

Q. What course did Alexander then pursue ? 

A. He first sent a letter, which was signed by the 
Clergy of Alexandria, to Arius and the presbyters who 
had joined him, to require them to abandon their error. 
When this remonstrance failed, he submitted the question 
to a council at Alexandria (a. d. 321), composed of Egyptian 
and Libyan bishops, and afterwards to an assembly com- 



I.] ON THE RISE AND PROGRESS OP ARIANISM. Ill 

posed only of the presbyters and deacons of Alexandria 
and Mareotis, and in consequence of their decisions, Arius 
and his adherents were excommunicated. 

Q. State the distinctive mark of Arianism. 

A. Arius allowed to our Saviour all the attributes 
of Almighty God, except the incommunicable nature, or 
ovaia (essence), which alone conferred them in a real and 
literal sense. 

Q. How did Arius defend his heresy ? 

A. By shewing " that if the Father begat the Son, 
He who was begotten had a beginning of existence (apx^v 
vwdp^em) ; therefore once the Son did not exist (rjv ore 
ovk %v) ; therefore he is formed from what once was not 
(ef ovk bvrwv e^ei tyjv vTroaTacriv)" Socrates, E. H. 
i. 5. 

Q. To what country did Arius withdraw when ex- 
pelled from Alexandria? How was he received? 

A. To Palestine, where he was cordially received by 
Eusebius, Metropolitan of Caesar ea, and others, who wrote 
to Alexander in his behalf, expressing their concurrence 
in his doctrine ; but Philogonius, Patriarch of Antioch, and 
Macarius, of Jerusalem, coincided with the views of Alex- 
ander, as stated in a circular letter. A correspondence, 
still extant, was now carried on between Arius and his 
bishop, hi which Arius modified his tenets so far as to 
admit the actual indefectibility of our Saviour. 

Q. How did Constantine act ? 

A. When he (a.d. 324) was informed of these divisions, 
he wrote a long letter to Alexander and Arius jointly, to 
exhort them to peace. It was carried into Egypt by 
Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, whom he had appointed to 
mediate between them, but after holding a council in which 
only some minor points were arranged, he returned to 
Constantine, and advised him to call a general council. 

Q. Where and when was the first GEcumenical 
Council held? Who were the principal prelates that 
attended ? 



112 ON THE RISE AND [lECT. 

A. At Nicsea, in Bithynia, in the summer of a. p. 
325. About 318 prelates, chiefly belonging to the Eastern 
provinces, besides a number of priests, deacons, and other 
functionaries, were present. Hosius, Alexander (attended 
by Athanasius, then 27 years of age), Eustathius, Patriarch 
of Antioch, Macarius of Jerusalem, Cgecilian of Carthage, 
Leontius of Csesarea in Cappadocia, and Marcellus of 
Ancyra, took the lead in the proceedings. About 13, 
(or 17, or 22,) Arian bishops, with the two Eusebiuses at 
their head, also attended. Alexander, Eustathius, and 
Hosius, were the presidents. 

Q. Was the Bishop of Rome represented in this 
council ? 

A. Sylvester, " Bishop of the Royal City of Rome." 
(Euseb. in vita Const.), in consequence of his old age, was 
not present ; but his presbyters Vitus and Vincentius sup- 
plied his place. 

Q. What course was pursued by the Arians ? 

A. Arius boldly stated his opinions ; after this a dis- 
cussion followed, in which Athanasius and Marcellus de- 
fended the Catholic, and Eusebius of Mcomedia, Maris, and 
Theognis, the Arian doctrine. The Arians presented a 
Creed drawn up by Eusebius of Csesarea, in which, though 
the words e/c ttj$ ovaias or o/uloovgios were omitted, 
every other attribute of God was bestowed on the Son, 
and the three persons were confessed to have a real exist- 
ence, and to be aXrjOivm, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. 

Q. In what manner was the orthodox decree of the 
council drawn up ? 

A. Hosius drew it up, and all (Arius and his abettors 
were mentioned by name) who favoured the heretical tenet 
were anathematized. 

Q. State briefly the plain question in dispute. 

A. " Whether our Lord was God in as full a sense as the 
Father, though not to be viewed as separable from him; or 
whether, as the sole alternative, he was a creature ; i. e. whether 
he was literally of, and in, the one Indivisible Essence which we 



I.] PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 113 

adore as God, ofxoovcrios ©ew, or of a substance which had a 
beginning. The Arians said he was a creature, the Catholics 
that he was very God." (Newman's Arians, p. 272.) 

Q. Did Constantine take any part? 

A. After destroying the papers which contained the 
mutual recriminations of the two parties, he opened the 
council with a suitable address ; was present at its dis- 
cussions ; and when the decision was announced, declared 
that all who opposed it were enemies to the state, and 
should suffer banishment. 

Q. Did the Arian party submit ? 

A. Eleven of the thirteen dissentient Bishops received 
as articles of peace the Creed with its anathemas, Eusebius 
of Nicomedia and the other accepted the 6/uoovaiov, but 
declined acquiescing in the anathema against Arius. Arius 
himself also submitted, and was pardoned on condition that 
he did not return to Alexandria. Eusebius was subse- 
quently sent into exile for some political offence, and Arius, 
apparently for the same cause, was banished with his ad- 
herents into Illyria. 

Q. State the subsequent history of Arius. 

A. About five years after the council (a.d. 330) he 
professed his acquiesence in its Creed, and through the 
influence of Eusebius was summoned to court. Constantine 
gave him a favourable reception, and sent him with his 
injunctions to Athanasius (now Primate of Egypt) to receive 
him into communion. Athanasius refused to comply, and 
was banished to Gaul; a council at Jerusalem restored 
Arius, and he returned to Alexandria ; but being recalled to 
Constantinople, he died the night before he was to have 
been reconciled to the Church, a.d. 336. 

Q. State some acts of the Council of Nice, exclusive 
of the condemnation of Arius. 

A. The controversy concerning the time of celebrating 
Easter was decided in favour of the practice of the Western 
Churches ; the troubles, excited by Novatian in opposing 
the re-admission of the lapsed to the communion of the 



] 1 4 ON THE RISE AND [lECT. 

Church were settled ; the Meletian schism was condemned ; 
the jurisdiction of the greater bishoprics was exactly 
denned ; and several other regulations were made. 

Q. In what did the Meletian schism consist ? 

A. Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis in Egypt, had been de- 
posed by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, whose jurisdiction extended 
throughout Egypt, after being convicted of burning incense to 
idols. Meletius upon this established a separate communion and 
exercised the power of ordination. The sixth canon of the Coun- 
cil of Nice confined this power to the Patriarch of Alexandria^ 
and the Synodal Epistle directs that those who had been ordained 
by Meletius, should, after having been confirmed by a more holy 
ordination, be admitted into communion on condition that they 
should consider themselves inferior to those who had been or- 
dained by Alexander. 

Q. What were the authentic records of this council ? 

A. The Synodal Epistle, addressed to the Church of Alex- 
andria, the Creed, and twenty Canons. 

Q. What is known of the life of Athanasius ? 

A. In the year 325 he attended, as his presbyter at 
the Council of Nice, Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, and 
succeeded him in 326. Councils were held against him at 
Ca3sarea and Tyre (333 — 335) by the Eusebians, and in 
335 he was banished to Treves in Gaul, where he engaged 
Constantine II. and Constans on his side, and was restored 
soon after the death of Constantine I. in 337. In the 
year 341 he was again sent into exile by the Synod of 
Antioch, acting under the influence of Constantius, and 
went to Rome, where the Bishop Julius, in accordance 
with the decision of a Synod, received him into communion. 
After the Council of Sardica in 347, Constantius being 
threatened by Constans with a civil war if he refused, 
Athanasius was again restored in 349. In 356 Constan- 
tius again deposed him ; he retired into upper Egypt until 
the Emperor's death in 361 ; he then returned, and oc- 
cupied his see in peace for eleven years. 

Q. Under what circumstances did the Council of 
Sardica meet? 

A. In the year 347 Constans and Constantius agreed 



I.] PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 115 

to convene an ecclesiastical assembly at Sardica, a city of 
Moesia, on the confines or their territories ; about 380 
bishops, of whom 76 were Arians, attended. Hosius pre- 
sided, but the Arians, alleging that Athanasius ought not 
to have a seat, withdrew from the Synod to the neigh- 
bouring town of Philippopolis, where they excommunicated 
Julius of Rome and Hosius, and confirmed the sentence 
against Athanasius ; whereas the Council at Sardica con- 
firmed the decree made at Rome in his favour. This was 
the commencement of the schism between the Eastern and 
Western Churches. 

Q. Give with dates the names of the Roman Em- 
perors from Constantine to the end of the century. 

A. Constantius reigned in the East from 337 to 350, 
and was sole emperor from 350 to 361. Of the joint 
emperors in the West, Constantine died in 340, and Con- 
stans in 351. After Constantius came Julian until 363, 
and Jovian for seven months. Valentinian then became 
emperor of the West in 364, and was succeeded by Gra- 
tian (who died 383), and Valentinian II. who died 392. 
Valens was emperor of the East from 364 to 378, and 
Theodosius, who conquered Eugenius the usurper of the 
West in 394, became sole emperor until 395. He was 
succeeded by his sons, Arcadius (who died 408) in the 
Eastern, and Honorius (who died 423) in the Western 
empire. 

Q. Give some account of the heretical party in the 
Church from a.d. 325 to a.d. 337. 

A. Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, who was its real 
leader, soon regained the confidence of Constantine, and 
prevailed upon him to recall Arius and his adherents, a.d. 
328. The Eusebians now became a court political party, 
and supplanted the Catholics by slanderous accusations. 
Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, having refused to admit 
some of their leaders into communion, and accused Eusebius 
of Csesarea of violating the Nicsean faith, they assembled a 
council of their own partisans, which, on certain charges 



116 ON THE RISE AND [lECT. 

of heresy and immorality, deposed him, and prevailed on 
Constantine to banish him and his adherents, a.d. 331. 
Marcellus of Ancyra in Galatia, another opponent, was dis- 
possessed on a charge of Sabellianism. After failing to 
convict Athanasius of political offences, they joined with 
the Meletians, and summoned him to councils at Caesarea 
and Tyre (333 — 335), on a charge of desecration, and 
after sending the leaders of their own party to investigate 
it in Mareotis in Egypt, as soon as they returned he was 
condemned of various offences, deposed, and prohibited 
from returning to Alexandria. Constantine again confirmed 
their decision, and banished him into Gaul, a.d. 336. By 
these and similar means they were in possession of the 
sees of Constantinople, Heraclea, Ephesus, Ancyra, the 
Caesareas, Laodicea, Alexandria, and most of the Eastern 
Churches, at the time of the death of Constantine. 

Q. Review the proceedings of the Eusebians from 
the death of Constantine to the death of Constans (a.d. 
337—350). 

A. Although Athanasius was restored through the 
influence of Constans and Constantine II., Constantius soon 
recommenced the persecution of the Catholics, and Athana- 
sius, with numerous ecclesiastics of the Eastern empire, in 
the years 340 and 341 fled for refuge to Rome, where 
Julius the Bishop held a provincial council, in which the 
charges against Athanasius and Marcellus were declared to 
be untenable, and another general council was demanded. 
Upon this the Eusebians took the opportunity of the pre- 
sence of the bishops of their own party at the dedication 
of the great Church at Antioch (341), to hold a council, 
in which they confirmed the decisions of their former 
councils at Caesarea and Tyre (333 — 335), and attempted 
to draw up such a creed as would satisfy the Western 
Church. Having failed to give satisfaction, the Council of 
Sardica met in 347. Athanasius and Marcellus were re- 
stored to their sees, and nothing of great importance took 
place until after the death of Constans. 



I.] PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 117 

Q. Explain the symbol of the Semi-arians. 

A. They substituted o/jloiovo-iov for the orthodox dfjiovovcriov, 
alleging, that " if the word ova-la denoted irpcaTti ovo-ta or an in- 
dividual being, then Sfxovova-iov seemed to bear a Sabellian mean- 
ing, and to involve a denial of the separate personality of the Son. 
On the other hand, to include two distinct persons (or viroo-Taa-ei^) 
under the term, was, as it were, to extend the ova-la, as in the 
case of created things ; as if it were some common nature, either 
divided in fact, or one merely by abstraction." 

Q. What contradictions did the Semi-arian creed involve ? 

A. " That the Son was born before all times, yet not eternal ; 
not a creature, yet not God; of his substance, yet not of the 
same substance; and his exact and perfect resemblance in all 
things, yet not a second Deitv." (Newman's Avians, pp. 318 — 
320.) 

Q. Into how many classes were the Arians divided, 
after Constantius became sole emperor, a.d. 351 ? 

A. (1) The genuine Semi-arians, with Basil of An- 
cyra and George of Laodicea at their head, who held 
that the Son was o/ulolovctios, i. e. similar to the Father in 
his essence, not by nature, but by a peculiar privilege. 
(2) The Eusebians, under Acacius of Antioch, who were 
called Homoeans, from neglecting to mention the ova la 
altogether as unscriptural. (3) The party of Aetius, a 
deacon of Antioch, and Eunomeus, Bishop of Cyzicus, 
who reverted to pure Arianism, and held that Christ was 
eT€poov<iio<$ or avonoios, i. e. unlike the Father, as well 
in his essence as in other respects. 

Q. Give a brief account of the Councils held between 
the deaths of Constans and Constantius (a.d. 350 — 361). 

A. (l) -That of Sirmium, a.d. 351, when the Semi- 
arians deposed Photinus its Bishop, and condemned the 
doctrine of Marcellus of Ancyra. 

(2) Those of Aries in 353, and Milan in 355 (Euse- 
bian), in which many of the Western Bishops joined in 
condemning Athanasius ; Liberius of Rome, Hilary of 
Poitiers, Lucifer of Cagliari, and others, were deposed for 
declining to do so. George of Cappadocia was made 
Bishop of Alexandria, and Felix, the Arian, of Rome. 



118 ON THE RISE AND [lECT. 

(3) The second at Sirmium in 357, against Photinus, 
which, under the influence of the Anomoean Bishops, Ursa- 
cius and Valens, declared all definitions concerning the 
substance of the Son as unscriptural, and beyond the un- 
derstanding of men. This was called the second or Ho- 
moean creed of Sirmium. But Basil called a synod next 
year at Ancyra, which decided in favour of the Semi-arians. 

(4) That of Antioch, a.d. 358, in which Aetius, Eu- 
doxius of Antioch, Acacius, and Eunomius, got a decision 
in favour of the Anomoeans. Liberius of Rome, although 
he continued a Catholic, signed an Arian creed, and was 
restored. 

(5) In the year 359, the Anomoeans, in conjunction 
with some Homoeousians, prepared a creed which merely 
asserted that the Son was " like unto the Father in all 
things" (6/uoios Kara irqvTa), in accordance with the 
Scriptures. After various debates at the Oriental Council 
at Seleucia in Isauria, and the contemporaneous Western 
Council at Ariminum (Rimini) in Italy, this creed was ap- 
parently adopted by all parties. 

(6) In 360 the Arians deposed, at Constantinople, 
Macedonius its Semi-arian Bishop. In 361 Meletius, 
Bishop of Antioch, was deposed. 

Q. What was the state of religious affairs under 
Julian? (a.d. 361—363.) 

A. He tolerated all religions and sects, renounced 
Christianity, and endeavoured to re-establish paganism. 
He wrote against the Christians ; forbade them to teach 
the liberal arts and sciences ; granted permission to the 
Jews to rebuild the temple ; recalled and restored all the 
exiled bishops, except Athanasius, whom he compelled to 
leave Alexandria; and deprived all Christians of their 
privileges. 

Q. Did Jovian imitate his predecessor ? 

A. No ; he declared himself in favour of the Nicene 
doctrine ; restored the privileges of the Church ; patron- 
ized Athanasius, and restored the exiled bishops. 



I.J PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 11,9 

Q. Were the reigns of the emperors from Valen- 
tinian favourable to the Mcene faith ? 

A. Valentinian favoured the Catholics, without per- 
secuting either Christians or pagans. Valens, probably at 
the instigation of Eudoxius, the Arian Bishop of Antioch, 
notwithstanding the efforts of Basil the Great and Gregory 
Nanzianzen, persecuted both the Homoeousians and the 
Orthodox. Gratian was a friend to the Orthodox. He 
also tolerated the Arians, but prohibited the Eunomians, 
Photinians, Manichees, and Donatists, from holding religious 
assemblies. He was the first emperor who laid aside the 
title of Pontifex Maximus ; and lastly, Theodosius fully 
established the Catholic Faith. 

Q. Give some account of the hypotheses of Apollinaris, 
Photinus, and Macedonius. 

A. Apollinaris of Laodicea, in maintaining the Divi* 
nity, denied in some measure the humanity of Christ. He 
thought that the body assumed by Christ was endowed 
with a sensitive and not a rational soul; and that the 
Divine Nature performed the functions of reason, and sup- 
plied the place of what we call the Mind. Photinus of 
Sirmium maintained that Christ was the Son of God, and 
even God, because the divine Word was united with his 
human nature, and that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct 
person, but a celestial virtue proceeding from the Deity. 
Macedonius of Constantinople considered the Holy Ghost 
as a Divine energy diffused throughout the universe, and 
not as a person distinct from the Father and the Son. 

Q. In what council was the heresy of Macedonius 
condemned, by whom was it called, and in what year did 
it meet ? 

A. The Council of Constantinople, which was attended 
by 150 oriental bishops, and is called the Second General 
Council. It was summoned by Theodosius the Great, a.d. 
381. 

Q. Who presided ? Was the Bishop of Rome repre- 
sented ? 



120 ON THE RISE AND [lE 



LECT. 



A. Timothy of Alexandria, and others in succession. 
Neither Damasus Bishop of Rome, nor any Western bishop, 
was present or represented. 

Q. What are the authentic records of the second 
(Ecumenical Council ? 

A. Seven Canons, its Creed, and its Synodal Letter 
to Theodosius. 

Q. State the purport of the first three Canons. 

A. The first confirms the Nicene Creed, and anathe- 
matised every heresy, " especially that of the Eunomians 
or Eudoxians, and that of the Seminarians or Pneumato- 
machi, and that of the Sabellians, and that of the Marcel- 
lians, and that of the Apollinarians." The second declares 
that each bishop should alone regulate his own diocese. 
The third decrees that the Bishop of Constantinople shall 
have the Primacy of honour after the Bishop of Rome, 
because that Constantinople is new Rome. 

Q. In what manner were the decrees of the Second 
General Council sanctioned ? 

A. Theodosius the elder, in consequence of receiving 
an epistle from the Synod, informing him of its decisions, 
and requesting his sanction to them, published an edict 
which ordered all Churches to be given up to bishops who 
held the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity. 

Q. How do you shew that the Synod of Constan- 
tinople, held under Theodosius the Elder, was a General 
Council ? 

A. The Egyptian Churches certainly did not at first 
acknowledge it to be so, nor was its creed approved of by 
the next General Council of Ephesus, held a. d. 431 ; but 
the fourth (Ecumenical Synod, held at Chalcedon in 451, 
allowed its creed to be of equal authority with that of 
Nice, and from that time all Churches have accounted it 
to be the Second General Council. 

Q. Where did the Nicene Creed originally end? 
What was added by the second general council? 

A. With the article of belief, " in the Holy Spirit " 



I.] PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 121 

(ets to ayiov irveufxa), then followed the anathema against 
those " who said that there was a time when the Son of 
God did not exist ; or that he did not exist before his 
birth ; that he was created or liable to change/' &c. ; but 
this the Council of Constantinople omitted, and added, 
"the Lord, the giver of life, who proceedeth from the 
Father, who with," &c. In the Latin translation of the 
7th Act of the second Council of Nice, filioque occurs, but 
it is wanting in the Greek copy. 

Q. Account for the Arianism of the Barbarians. 

A. Ulphilas, Bishop of the Goths, a man of great 
talents and influence, had visited Constantinople in the 
reigns of Constantius and Yalens, and become a convert 
to Arianism. He soon propagated this doctrine in his own 
country, and as the leaders of the tribes who afterwards 
invaded the empire followed the example of the Goths, 
Arianism was thus widely diffused. Their persecution by 
Theodosius drove many of the Arian teachers to .take 
refuge with the Barbarians, whose cause, when contend- 
ing with the orthodox emperors, they would naturally 
espouse. 

Q. Mention two circumstances which led to the ex- 
tinction of Arianism. 

A. (l) The conversion of Clovis (a.d. 496), and his 
subsequent zeal for the Catholic faith ; (2) the persevering- 
efforts of the Emperor Justinian for the extinction of all 
heresy. 

Q. In what two countries was Arianism longest 
known ? When did it become extinct ? 

A. (l) It flourished in Spain until a.d. 585, when 
Recared, an orthodox monarch, partly by force, and partly 
by holding the Council of Toledo in 589, extirpated it 
from his kingdom. (2) In the kingdom of the Lom- 
bards in Italy (569) ; but the accession of an orthodox 
queen, and the conversion of her subjects by the Catho- 
lic bishops, soon afterwards terminated the controversy. 
"From the date of this Council (381) Arianism was formed 
6 



122 ON THE RISE AND [LECT. 

into a sect exterior to the Catholic Church ; and taking 
refuge among the barbarian invaders of the Empire, is 
merged among those external enemies of Christianity whose 
history cannot be regarded as strictly ecclesiastical." New- 
man, p. 421. 

Q. When did the Roman Senate first recognize Chris- 
tianity as the religion of the Empire ? 

A. In the year 388. 

Q. Who is considered the first martyr to religious 
dissent ? What is known of his life and sect ? 

A, Priscillian, a Spanish bishop. Being accused of 
Manieheism, he was condemned by a Council at Saragossa 
(in 380), and banished from Spain by Gratian : but he 
was soon restored. He was again accused before Maximus 
(who had assassinated Gratian, and ruled in Gaul,) in 384, 
when he and several of his associates were executed at 
Treves. 

Q. What were the probable opinions of the Priscil- 
lianists ? 

A. They probably disputed the reality of Christ's 
Birth and Incarnation ; maintained that the universe was 
not created by the supreme Deity ; believed in the Gnostic 
^Eons ; and denied the resurrection of the body. 

Q. Name some of the contemporaneous sects. 

A. Aridaeans, Messalians, and Euchites. The Anti- 
dico-Marianites, and the Colly rideans ; the former held 
that the Virgin Mary did not always remain a virgin : 
the latter worshipped her as St Mary, and offered Colly- 
ridae, or cakes, to her. 

Q. Among what nations did Christianity gain ad- 
mission during the fourth century ? 

A. It was introduced among the Armenians by Gre- 
gory, who was consecrated their bishop by Leontius, Bishop 
of Cappadocia; among the ^Ethiopians by Frumentius, who 
was consecrated their bishop by Athanasius ; among the 
Georgians by a female captive ; among the Goths, whose 
bishops were Ulphilas and Theophilus; and among the 



!•] PROGRESS OF ARIANISM. 123 

Gauls (if not previously) by Martin, Bishop of Tours, who 
was staled the " Apostle of the Gauls." 

Q. What circumstances induced whole nations to em- 
brace Christianity ? 

A. Then' admiration of the God who secured such 
great victories to Constantine, and their wish to propitiate 
him, and his successors, by embracing their faith. The 
zeal also of the Christian bishops and missionaries, who 
preached among them, translated the Scriptures into their 
languages, and demonstrated by their conduct and example 
the superiority of the Christian over their degrading super- 
stitions, had considerable effect. 

Q. Did they suffer, in the fourth century, from any 
pagan persecutions ? 

A. Athanaria, king of the Goths, persecuted those of 
his nation who embraced Christianity ; and Sapor II. king 
of Persia, set on foot three persecutions, the last of which 
continued forty years, and caused the destruction of an 
incredible multitude. 



6—2 



124 (ECUMENICAL COUNCILS OF [lECT. 



ierture II. 

THE (ECUMENICAL COUNCILS OF EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 



Q. State, briefly, the origin of the Nestorian con- 
troversy. 

A. The decrees of councils had decided that Christ 
was truly God, and at the same time truly man; but 
nothing had been determined as to the mode and effects 
of this union. The Egyptian Church leaned to the doc- 
trine of Apollinaris of Laodicea, who taught that as the 
divine nature (Logos) supplied in Christ the place of the 
spiritual and intellectual principle, and thus constituted his 
mind, he could not in this sense be perfect man, and thus 
they confused his two natures. To avoid this the Syrian 
doctors so carefully distinguished the man from the God in 
Christ, that they were accused of dividing the person of 
Christ into two persons. Nestorius, a native of Syria, 
and presbyter of Antioch, who became Bishop of Con- 
stantinople (in 328), openly advocated the Syrian theology, 
and thus gave rise to the controversy called by his name. 

Q. On what occasion did the Nestorian controversy 
break out ? 

A. Anastasius, a presbyter of Constantinople, and 
friend of Nestorius, in a public discourse delivered a.d. 
428, inveighed against the title QeoroKos, or Mother of 
God, which was now more frequently attributed to the 
Virgin Mary, in the Arian controversy, than it had 
formerly been ; and gave it as his opinion, that she ought 
rather to be called XpicrroTOKos, i. e. Mother of Christ, 
since the Deity can neither be born nor die, and therefore 
the Son of Man alone could be born from an earthly 
parent. Nestorius applauded and defended these senti- 
ments, but was opposed by some monks, who maintained 



II.] EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND CONSTANTINOPLE. 125 

that the Son of Mary was God incarnate, and stirred up 
the populace against his doctrine. 

Q. Who was the opponent of Nestorius ? and what 
reasons have been assigned for his violence ? 

A. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria. Mosheim thinks 
that Cyril joined Celestine, Bishop of Rome, against Nes- 
torius, from a jealousy of the rising power of the see of 
Constantinople, and from indignation at some of the Egyp- 
tian monks who had adopted his sentiments. 

Q. State briefly the course adopted by Cyril of 
Alexandria to procure the condemnation of Nestorius. 

A. Cyril and Nestorius having both written to Rome, 
Celestine assembled a council in August 430, in which the 
opinions of Nestorius were condemned, and he was ordered, 
on pain of excommunication, within ten days of receiving 
their determination, to conform to the Catholic usage. The 
sentence was communicated to John, Bishop of Antioch, 
Juvenal of Jerusalem, and others ; and some assert that 
Celestine requested Cyril to see it carried into effect. In 
September Cyril called a council, which decided on putting 
the Roman sentence into execution. Four bishops carried 
to Nestorius the synodal letter to tins effect, together with 
a confession of faith, and twelve anathemas supplied by 
Cyril; but he prevailed on Theodosius the younger to call 
a general council, which met at Ephesus, at Whitsuntide 
in the following year, a. d. 431. 

Q. The council did not come to an unanimous de- 
cision. Why ? 

A. Cyril of Alexandria, Juvenal of Jerusalem, and 
Memnon of Ephesus, with the Egyptian and Syrian 
bishops, after waiting in vain for sixteen days for the 
arrival of John of Antioch, and the legates of Celestine, 
proceeded to act, with Cyril as president, and on the fol- 
lowing day declared Nestorius to be fallen from the epis- 
copal dignity, and separated from sacerdotal communion. 
Next day the Emperor and the Church of Constantinople 
were apprised of the sentence. Five days afterwards 



126 (ECUMENICAL COUNCILS OF [lECT. 

John of Antioch and other Eastern bishops arriving, held 
a council, in which Cyril and his writings were condemned. 
On the 11th of July, the legates of Celestine haying 
arrived, they in conjunction with the party of Cyril, gave 
judgment against Nestorius, and annulled the sentence 
passed upon Cyril and Memnon by the party of John of 
Antioch. Theodosius then ordered Nestorius to retire to 
a convent, and imprisoned Cyril and Memnon. At length, 
however, Nestorius was anathematized and deposed, and 
peace was restored in the year 432. 

Q. A want of regularity has been alleged against the 
general Council of Ephesus. Does this affect its authority ? 
Was JNestorius condemned unheard ? 

A. As the whole Church at length approved of the 
sentence ; as Nestorius was called on three times for his 
defence, and was only condemned after his writings had 
been examined ; as a considerable delay took place before 
he was finally deposed ; there cannot be any reasonable 
doubt of the justice of the sentence. 

Q. Did the decision of the Council of Ephesus ex- 
tinguish Nestorianism ? 

A. By no means : the writings of Nestorius were 
widely circulated, especially in Assyria and Persia, chiefly 
by the activity of Barsymas (451), bishop of Msibis, who 
induced the Persian king to found a Nestorian school, 
from whence teachers were afterwards sent into Egypt, 
Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary, and China. 

Q. Did the Council of Ephesus condemn any other 
heresy besides that of Nestorius ? 

A. In the first and fourth of its eight canons Celes- 
tius is condemned by name, and as he' was the pupil of, 
and held the same opinions as Pelagius, Pelagianism was 
in fact decided to be a heresy. 

Q. Give some account of the rise of Pelagianism. 

A. Pelagius (or Morgan), a native of the British 
Isles, and Celestius of Ireland, were two monks, who went 
to Home about the beginning of the fifth century, where 



II.] EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND CONSTANTINOPLE. 127 

the j enjoyed considerable reputation, and propagated their 
opinions in a private manner for several years. On the 
approach of the Goths to Rome, a.d. 410, they retired to 
Sicily, and thence to Africa, where they published their 
tenets more openly. Celestius was condemned at Car- 
thage, in 412, but Pelagius passed over into Palestine, 
where, by his equivocal answers and affected submission, 
he deceived (a. d. 415) a Council at Diospolis, and in 
revenge raised a persecution against St Jerom, the first 
who wrote against him. He also wrote four books on 
free-will, which were answered by St Augustin. His tenets 
were condemned by several African councils, and three 
successive bishops of Rome, and at length both Pelagius 
and Celestius were driven from all the Churches. 

Q. Mention briefly the chief Pelagian tenets. 

A. They asserted that there was no such thing as 
original sin, and no necessity for internal divine grace ; 
that we were born pure, and that our natural faculties 
were sufficient to lead us to the practice of piety and 
virtue ; that good works are the only conditions of sal- 
vation ; that baptism was not a sign and seal of the re* 
mission of sins, but a mark of admission to the kingdom of 
heaven. 

Q. A bishop of Rome gave two contrary decisions 
on the Pelagian controversy. State the circumstances. 

A. Celestius having in person, and Pelagius by letter, 
denied to Zosimus, Bishop of Rome, that they held the 
doctrines imputed to them, were declared by him to be 
orthodox ; but afterwards, when the bishops of Africa had 
explained the fallacy of their arguments, Zosimus instituted 
a more searching examination, upon which Celestius with- 
drew from Rome, and the Pelagian tenets were formally 
condemned. 

Q. Into what error did many of the opponents of 
Nestorianism fall? 

A. Eutychianism, or the Monophysite doctrine, which 
confounded the Persons of the Godhead, by maintaining 



128 (ECUMENICAL COUNCILS OF [lECT. 

that there was only one nature in our Saviour Jesus Christ 
after his incarnation. It was propagated by Eutyches, 
an archimandrite, or abbot of a monastery at Constan- 
tinople, about a.d. 446. 

Q. Who first attempted to punish Eutyches ? What 
was the result ? 

A. Flavianus, Patriarch of Constantinople, in the 
year 448, held a council to examine into his tenets, winch, 
when he refused to appear before it, or retract his error, 
degraded him from his orders, and deprived him of his 
office. Hereupon Eutyches appealed to a general coun- 
cil, which, in accordance with the order of Theodosius, 
met at Ephesus, a.d. 439. Dioscorus, Patriarch of Alex- 
andria, was the president, and Leo, Patriarch of Rome, was 
represented by three legates, of whom Hilary the deacon 
was one. Flavianus being condemned, appealed to a 
free general council, upon which he was so cruelly used 
that he died shortly afterwards. Hilary also had some 
difficulty in escaping. Leo now requested Theodosius to 
call a general council in Italy to hear the appeal of Fla- 
vianus ; but he declined to interfere. At length Marcion, 
his successor, complied, and summoned it to meet at Nice, 
a.d. 451; but it finally met at Chalcedon. The council 
held in 439 was called the Latrocinium, from the violence 
of its proceedings. 

Q. Give a brief account of the fourth general council 
held at Chalcedon. 

A. It was attended by 630 bishops, and presided 
over by twenty lay-commissioners of consular and senato- 
rian rank appointed by the Emperor ; the legates also 
of Leo were present. Eutyches and Dioscorus were con- 
demned, and the creeds of the three general Councils of 
Nice, Constantinople, and Ephesus, were confirmed. 

Note : — " There are but four things which concur to make 
complete the whole state of our Lord Jesus Christ : his Deity, 
his manhood, the conjunction of both, and the distinction of 
the one from the other being joined in one. Four principal 



II.] EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND CONSTANTINOPLE. 129 

heresies there are which have in those things withstood the 
truth : Arians by bending themselves against the Deity of Christ ; 
Apollinarians by maiming and misinterpreting that which be- 
longeth to his human nature ; Nestorians by rending Christ 
asunder, and dividing him into two persons; the followers of 
Eutyches by confounding in his person those natures which they 
should distinguish. Against these there have been four most 
famous ancient general councils: the council of Nice to define 
against Arians; against Apollinarians the council of Constan- 
tinople ; the council of Ephesus against Nestorians ; against Euty- 
chians the Chalcedon council. In four words, aXrjdws, -reAeco?, 
dhiaipeTwz, cto-vyxvTM, truly, perfectly, indivisibly, distinctly ; 
the first applied to his being God, and the second to his being 
Man, the third to his being of both One, and the fourth to 
his still continuing in that one Both : we may fully by way 
of abridgment comprise whatsoever antiquity hath at large 
handled either in declaration of Christian belief, or in refuta- 
tion of the foresaid heresies. Within the compass of which 
four heads, I may truly affirm, that all heresies which touch 
but the person of Jesus Christ, whether they have risen in these 
later days, or in any age heretofore, may be with great facility 
brought to confine themselves." (Hooker, Ecc. Pol. v. 54. 10.) 

Q. Give the purport of two canons passed at two 
general councils with respect to the sees of Rome and 
Constantinople. 

A. After the third canon of the general Council 
of Constantinople, held a.d. 381, which decreed that "the 
Bishop of Constantinople shall have the primacy of honour 
after the Bishop of Rome, because that Constantinople is 
new Rome," had been read, the Council of Chalcedon 
(held a.d. 451), in its 28th canon, added, "We decree 
the same things respecting the privileges of Constantinople, 
new Rome. For the Fathers properly gave the Primacy 
to the Throne of the elder Rome, because that was the 
imperial city, and gave equal privileges to New Rome, 
judging with reason, that the city which enjoyed equal 
privileges of sovereignty with the elder Rome, should 
also be magnified like her in ecclesiastical matters, being 
the second after her. And [we decree] that the Metro- 
politans only of the Pontic, and Asian, and Thracian 
dioceses, and moreover the Bishops of the aforesaid dio- 

6—5 



130 (ECUMENICAL COUNCILS OP [LECT. 

ceses who are amongst the barbarians, shall be ordained 
by the Church of Constantinople; each Metropolitan or- 
daining the Bishops of the Province, but the Metropolitans 
shall be ordained by the Bishop of Constantinople." — 
{Abridged from Hammond's Canons.) 

Q. To what portion of a canon of the Council of 
Chalcedon did the legates of Leo, Bishop of Rome, ob- 
ject? How were their arguments answered? 

A. They objected to that portion of the 28th canon 
which gave the same prerogatives to the Bishop of Con- 
stantinople as to the Bishop of Rome, and to his having 
an unlimited power of consecrating bishops. They asserted 
that these powers were contrary to the sixth canon of 
the Council of Nice, which they alleged began thus : " The 
Church of Rome has always had the primacy, therefore 
also Egypt has it, so that the Bishop of Alexandria has 
authority over all ; for this also has been customary to 
the Bishop of Rome." Aetius, the Archdeacon of Con- 
stantinople, answered them by quoting the canon as it 
was usually read : " Of the primacy of the Roman Church, 
or of the bishops of other cities. It is of ancient custom 
that the Bishop of Rome shall have the primacy, that 
he shall govern the suburbicarian district, and all the 
province by his own care. But as regards the parts of 
Egypt, that the Bishop of Alexandria shall have the care 
of all them." 

Q. What was the original jurisdiction of the Bishop 
of Rome? 

A. It extended over the ten suburbicarian districts, 
which included a large part of Italy, together with the 
islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. 

Q. The canons of a council conferred certain pri- 
vileges on the Church of Rome. 

A. The Council of Sardica, a. d. 347, decreed, "That 
when the Bishop of Rome thinks fit that the cause of 
a bishop should be examined a second time, he ought 
to write to the bishops next adjoining to his province, 



II.] EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND CONSTANTINOPLE. 131 

that they should examine the whole matter with care 
and exactness ; that he must also be empowered to send 
legates in his own name to this new synod, unless he 
think it more convenient to leave the judgment of the 
cause to the neighbouring bishops of the province only, 
without sending thither his legates." Another canon 
decrees, " That for the honour of St Peter," such an 
appeal might be made to the Bishop of Rome; and a 
third, that a bishop deposed by a synod of the pro- 
vince, who desires this new decision, must not be expelled 
his see, till the Bishop of Rome has determined whether 
the cause ought to be determined anew." 

Q. Were these decrees considered to be binding upon 
the Church ? Give reasons to support your opinion. 

A. No : because (l) The Eastern Church never re- 
ceived, and the African Church expressly disclaimed them. 
(2) The Roman Church itself never considered the Synod 
of Sardica to be a general council. (3) Its canons were 
not ratified by the Council of Chalcedon. (4) The West- 
ern Church never alluded to this privilege of the Roman 
see when they requested Theodosius (a.d. 407) to summon 
a general council. 

Q. Two instances are quoted by Romanists to prove 
the early appellate jurisdiction of that see. What are 
they ? 

A. (l) In the year 341 or 342 Athanasius claimed 
the protection of Julius, Bishop of Rome, against the 
Arians, and was restored through his influence. (2) Chry- 
sostom, about a.d. 403, appealed to Innocent to obtain 
a reversal of the sentence of deposition pronounced against 
him by a factious synod at Chalcedon. 

Q. The Bishops of Rome possessed a peculiar source 
of influence previously to the Council of Sardica (a. d. 347). 
Whence did it arise ? 

A. From their being the heads of the only Church 
of Apostolic foundation in the West, their opinion upon 
all questions of Apostolic customs and doctrines were 



132 (ECUMENICAL COUNCILS OF [LECT. 

eagerly sought after, and their letters (Epistolae decre- 
tales) written in answer to such enquiries, which soon 
assumed a tone of authority, were held in great estima- 
tion in the Western Churches. 

Q. How was the dignity of the Roman bishops 
limited even in Italy ? 

A. The Diocesis Romae was the only part where 
they had full patriarchal privileges. The Bishop of Milan 
exercised something equivalent to patriarchal power in 
the Diocesis Italise ; and, at a later period, the bishoprics 
of Aquileia and Ravenna became independent hierarchies. 

Q. Under what circumstances did the Roman bishops 
first acquire jurisdiction beyond Italy ? 

A. The province of Illyria originally belonged to 
the Western Empire, and during the Arian controversy 
had adhered to the decrees of the Council of Nice. After- 
wards, when Gratian divided Illyria into East and West, 
and annexed the former to the Eastern Church, the 
Bishops of Rome prevailed upon the Bishops of East 
Illyria to allow the Bishop of Thessalonica to exercise 
patriarchal rights over them as his vicar, an arrange- 
ment that was never abolished. Under somewhat similar 
circumstances the Bishop of Aries became their vicar in 
Gaul (a.d. 417). 

Q. How were the attempts of the Bishops of Rome 
to establish a jurisdiction over the African Churches de- 
feated ? 

A. Zosimus (about 418) by palming upon them the 
decisions of the Council of Sardica for those of the Coun- 
cil of Nice, induced them to restore a deposed presbyter 
named Arius ; but on a subsequent occasion, after the 
imposture was discovered, the African bishops forbade 
their clergy to appeal to foreign bishops. 

Q. By what means did Leo the Great, Bishop of 
Rome (a. d. 440—461), extend the influence of that see ? 

A. By alleging that its privileges were derived 
directly from St Peter, and not from custom ; and pro- 



II.] EPHESUS, CHALCEDON, AND CONSTANTINOPLE. 3 33 

curing a decree from Valentinian III. (a.d. 445), in 
consequence of a dispute with Hilary, Bishop of Aries, 
which constituted the Bishop of Rome the head of the 
whole Western Church. The Catholic Bishops of Africa 
also at length, when oppressed by the Arians, allowed 
Leo to exercise the rights of a patriarch in their 
Churches, 



134 GENERAL HISTORY [lECT. 



fctttuvt ill. 

ON THE GENERAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM THE COUNCIL 
OF CHALCEDON TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CONTROVERSY 
CONCERNING THE WORSHIP OF IMAGES. A.D. 451—726. 



Q. At what period was Paganism entirely suppressed 
in the Roman Empire ? 

A. All traces of it disappeared in the East during 
the reign of Justinian I. (a.d. 527—565), the New Pla- 
tonic School at Athens being abolished in the year 529, 
and the heathen compelled to submit to be baptized. In 
the West heathen practices were kept up until the fifth 
century, and Paganism existed in Sicily and Sardinia as 
late as the year 600. 

Q. How did the defeated party at the Council of 
Chalcedon, a.d. 451, shew their dissatisfaction at its 
decrees ? 

A, In Palestine, a party of monks, led on by Theo- 
dosius, one of their own body, raised a rebellion against 
their bishop ; but notwithstanding the support of the 
widowed Empress Eudoxia they were at length put down 
(a.d. 451 — 453); and in Alexandria a large body, headed 
by Timothy, a presbyter, and Peter (called Mongus, the 
stammerer), a deacon, separated from the communion of 
Proterius, who had succeeded the deposed Dioscurus. 
They maintained that the decrees of the council were 
pure JNestorianism, and that the sentence against Dioscurus 
was unjust. They were at length distinguished by the 
title of Monophysites {Movocpvalrai). 

Q. What was the conduct of the Egyptian Mono- 
physites after the death of the Emperor Marcian (a.d. 457) ? 

A. After murdering Proterius, they chose Timotheus 
iElurus primate in his stead. The Emperor Leo I. (a.d. 
457 — 474) then collected the subscriptions of the Eastern 



Ill 



] OF THE CHURCH, A. D. 451 726. 135 



prelates to the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon, and 
upon finding a great majority in favour of them, banished 
Timothy iElurus, the Eutychian ; and Timothy Salopha- 
cialus, a moderate and judicious Catholic, being appointed 
(a.d. 460) in his place, the peace of the Church was 
secured. 

Q. What controversy was excited at Antioch shortly 
after the Council of Chalcedon ? 

A. Peter the Fuller (Fullo), a monk of Constan- 
tinople, attempted to introduce into the Trisagium (" O 
God, most holy," &c.), the words Geo? earavpcoOrj (" God 
who was crucified for us"), and thus to establish the 
Monophysite doctrine that all the persons of the Godhead 
were crucified. His party, who were called Theopas- 
chites, deposed the patriarch, and in 463 elected Peter 
in his stead ; but he was banished about 471, by an im- 
perial decree. 

Q. The controversy broke out again, and an attempt 
at reconciliation was made. State the circumstances. 

A. The Emperor Basiliscus, having usurped the throne 
of Zeno Isauricus (a.d. 475 — 477), favoured the Mono- 
physites, reinstated Peter and Timothy JElurus in their 
former positions, and attempted to condemn the Council of 
Chalcedon. But Zeno (a.d. 477 — 491), being restored 
by the influence of Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople, in 
accordance with his advice issued (a.d. 482) the famous 
Henoticon, or Decree of Union, in which the subjects in 
dispute were treated in such general terms that neither 
party could claim an advantage. Peter Mongus (the stam- 
merer) was made Patriarch of Alexandria, and signed the 
Henoticon. 

Q. The Henoticon did not settle the disputes. Why? 

A. The more moderate men, both among the Catho- 
lics and Monophysites, subscribed it; but the Egyptian 
Monophysites separated from Peter Mongus (or Moggus), 
and formed a sect called the atcecpaXoi (without a leader). 
Peter Fullo signed the* Henoticon, and was restored in 485, 



136 GENERAL HISTORY 



LECT. 



but many Syrian bishops were displaced for their contumacy. 
Felix, Bishop of Rome, assembled an Italian council (a.d. 
484), in which Acacius was excommunicated for favouring 
the Monophysites, and treating the Council of Chalcedon 
with such contempt, as not even to mention it in the 
Henoticon. 

Q. Felix of Rome excommunicated Acacius of Con- 
stantinople. When, and with what effect ? How was the 
dissension healed? 

A. In the year 484. Acacius in return deposed and 
excommunicated Felix, and removed^ his name from the 
diptychs. A general schism between the Eastern and 
Western Churches now commenced, and lasted from a.d. 
484 to 519. Although the Emperor Anastasius (a.d. 491 
- — 518) avoided all interference in religious affairs, yet 
Justin I. (518—527), his successor, was compelled by a 
popular commotion to adopt the decrees of the Council of 
Chalcedon, and renew the communion with the Western 
Church (a.d. 519). 

Note : — The deposed Monophysite bishops generally took 
refuge at Alexandria, where their party was too strong to be 
attacked. This congregating so many of them at Alexandria 
led to internal divisions. Severus, formerly Patriarch of Antioch, 
formed a sect who were called Severians, and Phtartolatrae, from 
asserting that our Saviour's body was liable to the corruptions 
of human nature; from these afterwards sprung the Agnoetaa, 
who asserted that our Saviour was ignorant of the day of judg- 
ment, even as it respected his divinity, which arose from their 
disbelief of any nature in Christ, after the union, except the 
divine; and the Themistians, so called from Themistius, a deacon 
of Alexandria. Julian, the deposed Bishop of Halicarnassus, 
formed another sect called Julianists, and Apthartodocetse (a.d. 
525), whose tenets arose out of a dispute among the Eutychians, 
as to whether the body of our Saviour from the time of his 
conception was (pdapTov corruptible, or acpQaprov incorruptible : 
they held that it was incorruptible, in this sense at least, that 
Christ did not suffer hunger, thirst, fatigue, or those affections 
which he appeared to suffer in his corruptible nature. These 
were also called Phantasiastse and Gaianitas. The Apthartolatrse 
were also divided into the Actistetas and Ktistolatrse (Aktjo-t^- 
Tat and K-no-ToAaTpai), the former holding that our Saviours 



Ill 



J OF THE CHURCH, A.D. 451 ?26. 137 



body was uncreated, and the latter the contrary. About the 
year 560, the celebrated John Philoponus (who died a.d. 610, 
or later), a grammarian of Alexandria, propounded, amongst the 
Monophysites, a Tritheistic system, founded on an erroneous 
application of the Aristotelian Realism applied to the doctrine 
of the Trinity, and also some errors concerning the resurrection. 
JDamianus, Patriarch of Alexandria, when contending against 
Philoponus, appears to have fallen into the Sabellian errors. 
About the same time, Stephanus Niobes was condemned by 
the other Monophysites, for denying that the two natures of 
Christ were so commingled that no difference between them 
existed after their union, whereas the true Monophysites " held 
that the divine and human natures of Christ were so united as 
to constitute but one nature, yet without any conversion, con- 
fusion, or commixture ; and that this might be understood, they 
often said there was but one nature in Christ." 

Q. What efforts were made by Justinian I. (a.d. 
527 — 565) to restore peace to the Church? 

A. Although he himself zealously held the decrees 
of the Council of Chalcedon, he declared, in a.d. 553, with 
the hope of conciliating that party, that the Monophysite 
formula, " God was crucified," was orthodox ; but he was 
disappointed in his expectations. His empress Theodora, 
who favoured the Monophysites, was equally unsuccessful 
in her attempts to introduce their doctrine either at Con- 
stantinople or Rome. Mennas, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
having prevailed upon the Emperor to condemn the Ori- 
genists in 544, Theodorus Ascidas, Bishop of Caesarea, in 
Cappadocia, one of that party, in revenge persuaded him 
to declare against the Three Chapters. 

Q. What were the Three Chapters ? What was their 
tendency ? 

A. They were works which favoured the Nestorian 
doctrine, written, (l) by Theodore of Mopseutia ; (2) by 
Theodoret of Cyrus ; (3) by Ibas of Edessa. 

Q. Under what circumstances were the Three Chap- 
ters condemned? 

A. Theodorus Ascidas, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappa- 
docia, by his influence at the imperial court, had protected 
the Origenists ; but Mennas, Patriarch of Constantinople, 



1S8 GENERAL HISTORY [lECT. 

prevailed upon Justinian to condemn their errors, about the 
year 544. Upon this Theodorus persuaded the emperor, 
that if the works of Theodorus of Mopseutia, which were 
in no great repute with the orthodox, those of Theodoret 
against Cyril, and Ibas of Edessa's letter against Maris, 
(the two last of which had been approved by the Council 
of Chalcedon,) were condemned, the Monophysites, and 
especially the Acephali, would become reconciled to the 
Church. Justinian on this representation condemned the 
Three Chapters, and the Eastern Church generally ac- 
quiesced in this decision, but the Western opposed it with 
some violence. After sending for Vigilius, Bishop of Rome, 
to Constantinople in 546, and finding that he would not 
cordially support him, Justinian determined to assemble a 
general council. 

Q. Give a brief account of the proceedings which 
took place at the fifth general council. 

A. It was convened by Justinian, a.d. 553, and 
attended by 165 bishops. The decrees of the first four 
CEcumenical Councils were confirmed, and the Three Chap- 
ters condemned. It was rejected by some Western bishops, 
because it condemned Theodoret and Ibas, whose works 
had been approved by the Council of Chalcedon ; but it was 
generally acknowledged by the Church. 

Q. State briefly the conduct of Vigilius with regard 
to the Three Chapters. 

A. Vigilius had been, in 538, appointed Bishop of 
Rome by the influence of Theodora, Empress of Justinian, 
on the understanding that he would support the Monophy- 
site doctrines ; but when Justinian condemned (546) the 
Three Chapters, he expressed his disapprobation of his 
conduct. In 548 he acquiesced in the sentence, but again 
recalled his assent in 551 ; at length, in the year 554, he 
subscribed the decrees of the fifth general council. 

Q. Mention some particulars relating to the subse- 
quent history of the Monophysites. 

A. In Alexandria they chose their own patriarch 



Ill 



] OF THE CHURCH, A. D. 451 ?26. 139 



(a.d. 536), and continue to exist in Egypt even to the 
present day under the name of Copts. When Armenia 
fell into the hands of the Persians, about 536, a council 
was held in that country which rejected the decrees of the 
Council of Chalcedon, and the Armenians have ever since 
been a separate party in the Church. In Syria and Meso- 
potamia, Jacob Baradai, or Zanzalus (a. d. 541 — 578), 
revived the party, which after him was called the sect of 
the Jacobites. 

Q. At what period did the Koman bishops become sub- 
ject to German princes ? How was their position altered ? 

A. In the year 476. They were allowed to manage 
all the internal affairs of the Church according to their 
own pleasure, especially under Theodoric, King of the 
Ostrogoths (a.d. 494 — 526), whose interests were for- 
warded by the schism between the Eastern and "Western 
Churches. 

Q. Mosheim states two principal causes which tended 
to increase the power of the bishops of Rome at an early 
period. What were they ? 

A. (l) The ambition of the patriarchs of Constan- 
tinople, which led them to oppress the bishops of Alex- 
andria and Antioch, who being unable to contend with 
their great power, often had recourse to the Bishop of 
Rome for succour, and the ordinary bishops followed their 
example whenever the patriarchs of Antioch and Alex- 
andria invaded their rights. So that the pontiff, by ex- 
tending his protection to all in turn, thus managed to 
advance the supremacy of the Roman see. (2) The 
incursions of the barbarians. For their kings, when they 
saw that the people obeyed implicitly their bishops, and 
that these were almost wholly dependent upon the Roman 
pontiff, deemed it good policy to secure his favour by 
bestowing on him privileges and honours. 

Q. A schism arose in the Church of Rome between 
Laurentius and Symmachus at the end of the fifth cen- 
tury. What was the result? 



140 GENERAL HISTORY [lECT. 

A. Anastasius, Bishop of Rome, dying in 498, Sym- 
niachus, who was deacon, was elected by the greatest 
number, and consecrated ; but a party who were favour- 
able to the Henoticon caused Laurentius also to be elected 
and ordained. Both parties appealed to Theodoric at 
Ravenna, who confirmed the election of Symmachus, and 
after some opposition his decision was generally acquiesced 
in, and Symmachus continued in the see until the year 
514. 

Q. On what occasion was it asserted that the Roman 
bishops were not subject to any earthly power? What 
appears to have been their position at that time ? 

A. Ennodius, Bishop of Ticinum (a.d. 511), when 
writing in defence of the Synod of Palmaris (a.d. 503), 
which had been summoned by Theodoric, to consider cer- 
tain charges brought against Symmachus, and had acquitted 
him without examination, made the above assertion. About 
this time the Popes began to claim the superintendence 
of the Universal Church, partly by alleging imperial de- 
crees, and the decrees of synods in their favour, but chiefly 
by asserting the peculiar privileges with which they were 
invested as the successors of St Peter. " Not long after, 
an attempt was made to give this principle an historical 
basis, by bringing forward forged acts of former popes; 
nor was this the only instance of the like deception. Still 
the Roman bishops themselves did not as yet claim any 
other honours than were paid to all Apostolic sees, acknow- 
ledging that they were subject to the authority of synods, 
and that they had no right to interfere with their brethren 
except in cases of delinquency." (Gieseler, vol. i. p. 340). 
Q. What gave rise to the contest which took place 
in the sixth century between the bishops of Rome and 
Constantinople ? 

A. In the year 587, John, called Jejunator, or the 
Faster, having assembled a council to examine into a 
charge brought against the Bishop of Antioch, assumed 
the title of CEcumenical or Universal Bishop (Patriarcha 



III.] OF THE CHURCH, A.D. 451 726*. 141 

universalis, ol/cofjuew/co?). Pope Pelagius II., and after- 
wards Gregory the Great, rejected this appellation, but 
without effect, as the Emperor Maurice favoured the Patri- 
arch of Constantinople. 

Q. What title did Gregory assume ? Under what 
circumstances was the title of Universal Bishop transferred 
from the Patriarch of Constantinople to the Pope ? 

A. That of " The servant of the servants of God." 
It is supposed that Phocas, who had murdered the Em- 
peror Maurice in 602, transferred, in 606, this title to 
Pope Boniface III., and declared Rome to be the head 
of all the Churches. 

Q. What attempts were made by the Emperor He- 
raclius to reconcile the Monophysites with the Church? 

A. Heraclius (a.d. 611 — 641) upon being assured 
that the Monophysites would conform, provided it was 
acknowledged that " after the union of the two natures 
in Christ, there existed but one will and operation," issued 
an edict to that effect a.d. 630 ; but Sophronius, a monk 
of Palestine and afterwards Patriarch of Jerusalem, sum- 
moned a council, in which the new sect of the Monothelites 
was declared to be heretical. 

Q. The Emperor Heraclius issued an edict prohibit- 
ing all further controversy on the question, "Whether in 
Christ there was one or two natures." What was it called, 
and what reception did it experience ? 

A. It was composed by Sergius, Patriarch of Con- 
stantinople (a.d. 638), and called the Ecthesis, or Expo- 
sition of the Faith. It was assented to by a considerable 
number of Eastern bishops, but John IV. assembled a 
Council at Rome (a.d. 639), in which it was rejected, and 
the Monothelites condemned. 

Q. A new edict replaced the Ecthesis ; give some 
account of it. 

A. The Emperor Constans (a.d. 642 — 668), by the 
advice of Paul of Constantinople, suppressed the Ecthesis, 
and issued (a.d. 648) a new edict known by the name of 



142 GENERAL HISTORY [LECT. 

the "Type or Form of the Faith," which enjoined silence 
upon the dispute concerning the one will and the one 
operation in Christ. 

Q. By whom was the Type of Constans opposed ? 

A. By Pope Martin, who assembled a Council in 
the Lateran Church at Rome, a.d. 649, which condemned 
both the Ecthesis and the Type, and anathematized the 
Monothelites and their patrons. He was deposed for his 
contumacy, a.d. 653. 

Q. For what purpose was the sixth general council 
held ? Mention some of its acts. ^ 

A. Constantius Pogonatus (emperor 668 — 685), by 
the advice of Pope Agatho, summoned it to be held at 
Constantinople a.d. 681, to settle the Monotheletic con- 
troversy. It decided "that there are two natural wills, 
or operations in Christ, in one Person, without division, 
mixture, or change. That these two wills are not con- 
trary ; but that the human will follows the divine will, and 
is subject to it." The Monothelites, including Honorius, a 
former bishop of Rome, were then anathematized. 

Q. For what purpose, and by whom, was the council 
called Quinisextum held ? 

A. Justinian II. (reigned from 685 — 695, and from 
705 — 711) assembled it a.d. 692, at Trullus in Constan- 
tinople : it enacted 102 canons, which were either the 
repetitions of former canons, or sanctioned customs already 
established. Pope Sergius I. refused to accept these canons, 
and the Roman Catholics have never reckoned it amongst 
the general councils, because many of them are contrary 
to their discipline. 

Q. What was the fate of Monothelitism after the 
Council of Constantinople? 

A. The Emperor Philippicus Bardanes (a.d. 711 — * 
713) made an attempt to revive its doctrines, but ortho- 
doxy was restored under his successor Anastasius II. (713 
— 716). In Syria a small party of Monothelites collected 
in Mount Libanus, round the convent of St Maro, and 



III.] OF THE CHURCH, A.D. 451 726. 143 

chose patriarchs of Antioch, of their own party, the first 
of whom is said to have been John Maro, who died about 
701. Under the name of Maronites they continued to 
hold their doctrines until a.d. 1182, when they were re- 
admitted into the communion of the Western Church. 

Q. What was the state of the Church in Italy at 'the 
beginning of the seventh century ? 

A. After the council termed Quinisextum (from its 
being supplementary to the fifth and sixth general councils), 
held at Constantinople a.d. 692, Justinian II. attempted 
to bring Pope Sergius I. to Constantinople, to compel Mm 
to adopt its decrees, but the garrison of Ravenna protected 
him against the imperial authority. At a later period 
(a.d. 710) the friendship of the Pope was so necessary for 
preserving his authority in Italy, that Justinian invited 
Pope Constantine to visit him at Constantinople, where he 
shewed him the greatest attention. In fact, when the 
emperors were pressed by the Saracens in the East, the 
popes, though they were their vassals, and had to be con- 
firmed by them in their office, and to pay certain taxes, 
were the chief barrier against the conquest of Italy by 
the Lombards, and therefore the emperors found it diffi- 
cult to coerce them. 

Q. Give Mosheim's summary of the tenets of the Mono- 
thelites. 

A. "It is very difficult to define the real sentiments of the 
Monothelites, or what it was their adversaries condemned. For 
neither party is uniform in its statements, and both disclaim the 
errors objected to them. I. The Monothelites disclaimed all 
connexion with the Eutychians and the Monophysites ; and con- 
fessed that there were, in Christ the Saviour, two natures, so 
united, without mixture or confusion, as to constitute but one 
person. II. They admitted that the human soul of Christ was 
endowed with a will, or the faculty of willing and choosing; 
and that it did not lose this power of willing or choosing, in 
consequence of its union with the divine nature. For they held 
and taught that Christ was perfect man, as well as perfect God ; 
and, of course, that his human soul had the power of willing 
and choosing. III. They denied this power of willing and choos- 
ing in the human soul of Christ, to be inactive, or inoperative : 



144 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, A.D. 451 726. [lECT. 

on the contrary, they conceded that it operated together with 
the divine will. IV. They therefore, in reality, admitted two 
wills in Christ, and that both were active and operative wills. 
Yet, V., they maintained that, in a certain sense, there was 
but one will and one operation of will in Christ." (Yol. II. 
p. 108.) 

Q. What German nation was the first to embrace 
the Christianity of the Catholic Church ? Which of their 
kings set the example? State some particulars of his 
conversion. 

A. The Franks. Clovis or Lewis, king of the Salii, 
who had conquered a large part of Gaul, in the year 496, 
in a battle with the Alemanni, at the request of his wife, 
Clotildis, a Christian, implored the aid of Christ, and made 
a vow, that if victorious he would worship him as his God. 
He gained the victory, and was soon afterwards baptized 
by Jtemigius, Bishop of Rheims, and many thousands of 
his subjects followed his example. It is reported that a 
dove brought from heaven a phial of oil for anointing him 
at his baptism, and that he assumed the title of "most 
Christian Majesty," and, " eldest son of the Church." 



IV.] THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AXD WRITERS OF THE CHURCH. 145 

gerture iv. 

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 



Q. Give some account of the early history of the 
Catechetical School of Alexandria. 

A. Of its early progress and gradual completion we 
possess no authentic information. From the indefinite 
accounts of Eusebius and St Jerom, we cannot even ascer- 
tain for certainty, whether from its origin it was intended 
as a college for the education of Christian teachers, or a 
mere school for the instruction of the converted heathen. 
In its early stages the bishop appears to have appointed 
one master only, under the name of Catechist, whose duty 
it was to instruct both the enquiring heathen and the 
children of Christian parents. Origen was the first master 
who had a coadjutor to relieve him from the fatigue of 
elementary teaching ; and from that time the Head Catechist 
confined himself almost exclusively to the inculcation of the 
higher branches of Christian knowledge. 

Q. Xame some of the earliest Masters of the Alex- 
andrian Catechetical School. 

A. Athenagoras is the earliest master of whom we 
have any mention. Then came Pantsenus, Clemens, Origen, 
Heraclas, Dionysius, Pierius, Theognostus, Serapion, Petrus 
Martyr, Macarius, Didymis, Rhodon, &c (See Dodwell's 
Dissert, on Irenceus.) 

Q. What effect had the proselytising spirit of the 
Alexandrian School on the writings and teaching of its 
masters ? 

A. It gave rise to an exoteric mode of teaching, in 
which the truths of Christianity were gradually and cau- 
tiously revealed to the catechumen as his knowledge ad- 
vanced, until having become a confirmed and enlightened 
7 



146 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS [lECT. 

Christian, the peculiar doctrines of the Incarnation, the 
Atonement, and the Trinity, were fully imparted to him. 
The same caution was observed in preaching to the Hea- 
then, and in addition, an allegorical mode of interpreting 
both the Old and New Testaments was adopted. (See p. 
107, 1.1; p. 103, 1. 10; p. 104, 1. 7). 

Q. Distinguish between the disciplina arcani and 
the economical mode of teaching. 

A. The former is the withholding of the truth, the 
latter the mode of displaying it in its most attractive form. 

Q. Shew that St Paul, in certain cases, adopted both 
these systems. 

A. In the Epistle to the Hebrews (v. 11 — 14) we 
have an instance of the former ; but his becoming to the 
Jews as a Jew, to the Heathen as one without the law, 
and his mode of preaching at Athens, are undoubted speci- 
mens of the latter mode. 

Q. What, according to Clement, was required of the 
Alexandrian catechist for the successful discharge of his 
duty ? 

A. "He who desires generally to select that which 
is useful for the advantage of the catechumens, and more 
especially when they are Hellenists, he must not refuse to 
learn much ; but he must seek to gather together as many 
aids as possible for his hearers." "All cultivation is useful, 
and especially the study of the Holy Scriptures is neces- 
sary, in order to be able to prove that which we bring 
forward, and also, where the auditors are persons of Hel- 
lenic education." 

Q. What philosophical school was formed at Alex- 
andria about the same time as the Catechetical School? 
Who was its founder, and what was its distinguishing 
tenet ? 

A. About the end of the second century, Ammonius 
Saccas, who had been educated as a Christian, founded the 
Eclectic school of philosophy, which was described as a 
New-Platonic system, but had only a nominal connexion 



IV.] AND WRITERS OF TEE EARLY CHURCH. 147 

with Platonism. He professed to select from the Heathen, 
the Jewish, and the Christian systems, all that appeared to 
be good in each, and to digest them into one consistent 
scheme of heathenism. 

Q. Did the masters of the Alexandrine Catechetical 
School encourage the Eclectics ? 

A. As the real nature of its doctrines was concealed 
by Ammonius, and was only divulged by his disciple Plo- 
tinus, at Rome, about a.d. 255, Pantaenus, Clement, and 
Origen, were ignorant of their character, and could only 
oppose them, as we know Origen did, on vague report. 

Q. A modern heresy resembles Eclecticism in some of its 
tenets. Give some account of it. 

A. Modern Neologism denies that the Scripture prophets 
had any peculiarly divine inspiration, and only allows them to 
have been instruments made use of by God to introduce into the 
world a clearer knowledge of moral and religious truth. " In its 
most specious form, it admits whatever is good and true in the 
various religions of the world to have actually come from God ; 
in its most degraded, it accounts them all equally to be the result 
of mere human benevolence and skill. In all its shapes, it differs 
from the orthodox belief, primarily, in denying the miracles of 
Scripture to have taken place, in the peculiar way therein repre- 
sented, as distinctive marks of God's presence accrediting the 
teaching of those who wrought them ; next, as a consequence, 
in denying this teaching, as preserved in Scripture, to be in such 
sense the sole record of religious truth, that all who hear it are 
bound to profess themselves disciples of it." (Newmans Avians, 
p. 115). 

Q. Under whom did a peculiar system of Christian 
theology grow up at Antioch ? 

A. Lucian, a presbyter of that Church, from whom 
Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and others, assumed the 
name of Collucianists, is supposed to have held what were 
afterwards called Semi-arian doctrines ; but as he died an 
orthodox martyr, he had probably abandoned such specu- 
lations previously to that period (a.d. 312). 

Q. To what early heresies did the Church of Antioch 
approach ? 

A. Those of the carnal Judaizing sects, who for a 

7—2 



148 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS [lECT* 

length of time exercised great inflence in Asia and Syria. 
" You," (writes Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, to the 
Church of Constantinople, a.d. 324), "having been taught 
of God, cannot be ignorant that the heresy (Arian) against 
the religion of the Church which has just arisen, is the 
same as that propagated by Ebion and Artemas, and that 
it resembles that of Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, 
who was excommunicated by all the bishops (a.d. 265). 
Lucius, his successor, remained three years out of com- 
munion with three bishops." 

Q. What results were expected by the Alexandrians 
to arise from the adoption of a "Gnosis"? 

A . By means of a Gnosis, proceeding from faith, and 
engrafting itself on that faith in harmony with it, they 
expected to avoid the faults; "(l) of those Greeks, who 
despised Christianity as a blind, reason-hating belief, and 
who were only strengthened in their contempt of it by 
the sensuous conceptions of the uninformed and abruptly 
repulsive Christians by which they were met. (2) Of 
those Gnostics, then very common in Alexandria, who at 
the same time spoke with contempt of the blind belief of 
the sensuous multitude, and by the promise of a higher 
exoteric religious creed, attracted to themselves the Hea- 
thens who were enquiring after wisdom, and the Christians 
who were unsatisfied with the common instruction in re- 
ligion. (3) Of those pastors of the Church, whose views 
were of a practical-realistic nature, and particularly those 
among them who were very zealous, to whom, from the 
speculative pride and presumption of the Gnostics, all spe- 
culation and philosophizing, and every attempt at anything 
like a Gnosis, were objects of suspicion, and were always 
fearful of the intermixture of foreign philosophical elements 
with Christianity " ; and to select whatever there was of 
truth in each of them, nay, even to be able to reconcile 
them to each other. (Rose's Neander, Vol. n. p. 198.) 

Q. How did the Alexandrian yvcoots and maris 
differ from that of the heretical Gnostics? 



IV.] AND WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 149 

A. "In this respect, that they recognized tticttis as 
the foundation of the higher life of all Christians, as the 
common bond, by which all, however they might differ 
from each other in intellectual culture, might be united 
into one Divine community. They even also opposed the 
unity of the Catholic Church, founded on this faith, to the 
discrepancies of the Gnostic schools (Siarpificu), the one 
with the other, and they did not assume different sources 
of knowledge for irians and yvwaLs, but the same for 
both ; namely, the tradition of the main doctrines of Chris- 
tianity, existing in all Churches, and Holy Scripture ; they 
ascribed to Gnosis only the work of bringing into full 
consciousness that which was first acquired by faith and 
received into the inward life, of developing it according to 
its full extent and its internal connexion, of grounding it 
upon knowledge, and presenting it to others with know- 
ledge, of proving that this is the genuine doctrine, which 
came from Christ, of giving a reason for it, and of defend- 
ing it against the reproaches of its adversaries among the 
heathen philosophers and heretics." (Rose's Neander, Vol. 
ii. p. 199). 

Q. Who were the enemies of the Origenistic School '? 

A. " The friends of Clnlianism, of the carnal and 
literal interpretation of Scripture, and the anthropomor- 
phical and anthropopathical mode of representing Divine 
things connected with such a system of interpretation, and 
the zealots for the letter of the doctrinal tradition of the 
Church." {Neander). 

Q. Did the banishment of Origen discourage his dis- 
ciples at Alexandria ? 

A. JSo ; Heraclas, his friend and disciple, not only 
succeeded him in the school, but also Demetrius in the 
bishopric in 231. Dionysius, another disciple, was also 
successively catechist and bishop (248 — 265) of Alexan- 
dria. The fragments of the works of Pierius and Theog- 
nostus (preserved by Photius) shew that they also held his 
doctrines. Dionysius extirpated from the Eastern Church 



150 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS [lECT. 

the belief in the Millennium (Chiliasm), which his master had 
attacked. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop of New Caesa^ 
rea, was also an enthusiastic admirer of his doctrines. 
Methodius, Bishop of Tyre (suffered martyrdom a.d. 311), 
warmly maintained against the Origenists the resurrection 
of the body, and also attacked their notion of an endless 
succession of worlds. Pamphilus, a presbyter of Csesarea, 
(martyred a.d. 309), wrote in prison an apology for Ori- 
gen, in five books, to which his friend Eusebius added 
a sixth. 

Q. Describe the dispute between St Jerom and Ru- 
finus, with relation to Origen's books. 

A. Rufinus, who was a great admirer of Origen, had 
a contest (390 — 397) with St Jerom at Jerusalem with 
regard to them. In 397, Rufinus published at Rome a 
translation of the first book of the Apology of Pamphilus 
for Origen, with a preface, upon which St Jerom wrote 
his Apology against Rufinus, in answer to which Rufinus 
wrote two books, which he intituled Invectives. John of 
Jerusalem declared in favour of Rufinus and Origen, whilst 
Theophilus of Alexandria condemned them, and Anastasius, 
Bishop of Rome, in 401, declared Rufinus to be heretical. 
Rufinus spent his subsequent life at Aquileia in translating 
Origen's works, and died a.d. 410. 

Q. Mention some of the errors which have been im- 
puted to Origen. When were they condemned ? 

A. He was accused of having held, (l) That in the 
Trinity the Father is greater than the Son ; the Son than 
the Holy Ghost. (2) That souls pre-existed, and were 
condemned to inhabit mortal bodies, as a punishment. 
(3) That the soul of Christ was united to the Word, 
before the incarnation. (4) That the sun and other 
heavenly bodies were animated and endowed with rational 
souls. (5) That at the resurrection all bodies will be of 
a spherical form. (6) That the torments of the damned 
will have a termination. (7) That as Christ was crucified 
here to save man, he will be crucified in the next world 



IV.] AND WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 151 

to save the devils. They were condemned at the fifth 
General Council, a.d. 553. 

Q. State some particulars relating to St Cyril of 
Jerusalem. 

A. He was born about a.d. 315, most probably at 
Jerusalem, where he became a deacon in 335, and bishop 
about 349 or 350. Having a dispute with the Arians, 
and also with Acacius of Caesarea, about the rights of his 
Church, he was deposed (in 357 — 367), but he returned 
at intervals, and from 378 to his death in 386, enjoyed 
his see in peace. " We have eighteen Catechetical Dis- 
courses of his for the instruction of the Catechumens, and 
five called Mystagogies, for those newly baptized. He 
wrote them in his youth (a.d. 348). There he explains 
our mysteries after a simple, distinct, and precise manner." 
(Dupin). 

Q. Mention some particulars of the life of St Basil 
the Great. 

A. He was born at Caesarea in Cappadocia, a.d. 328. 
After having been educated in the Christian religion by 
his grandmother, Macrina, he studied at Caesarea in Pales- 
tine ; from thence he went to Constantinople, where he 
became the pupil of the rhetorician Libanus, and at last 
proceeded to Athens to finish his studies. There he met 
with Gregory Nazianzen, with whom he became very in- 
timate. About the year 355 he returned to Cappadocia, 
and retired into solitude about 362. In the year 369 
or 370 he was chosen Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. 
The Emperor Valens endeavoured in vain to induce him 
to communicate with Eudoxius, and to embrace the Arian 
doctrines. He used every means to induce Meletius to 
re-unite with Athanasius and the bishops of the West, and 
to re-establish the peace of the Church. He died on the 
first of January, a.d. 378 or 379. 

Q. Give a brief account of his works. 
A. "He wrote a great many letters, in which was contained 
the whole history of the Church in his time, and abundance of 



152 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS [LECT. 

questions concerning the decided doctrine, discipline, and morality 
of the Church. We have three canonical ones to Amphilochius, 
which contain very wise laws about penance. We have homilies 
of his about the work of the Creation of the world, and upon the 
Psalms, and a commentary upon the first sixteen chapters of 
Isaiah. He opposed the doctrine of Eunomius in five books, and 
maintained the divinity of the Holy Ghost in a work by itself. 
He wrote upon Baptism and Virginity ; we have likewise thirty- 
one sermons of his, as well upon Faith as Morality, and excellent 
practical works." (Dupin). 

Q. What do we know of the life of Gregory of 
Nazianzus ? 

A. That he was born about a.d. 325 or 328, and 
was the son of Gregory, Bishop of ISTazianzus, in Cappa- 
doeia. His education commenced at Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
and was continued at Csesarea in Palestine ; he studied 
rhetoric at Alexandria, and to perfect himself, went to 
Athens about the year 344 or 355. After remaining 
there for some time, and contracting a friendship with 
St Basil, he returned to his own country, where he was 
baptized, and after spending some time in study and re- 
tirement, was ordained priest about a.d. 361. It is said 
that St Basil, in -372, made him Bishop of Sasima, but 
that he soon afterwards retired from public life, until he 
was constrained, in 379, to become bishop of the orthodox 
at Constantinople. At the second General Council at Con- 
stantinople, in 381, Theodosius made him patriarch of that 
see, but an objection being raised to his translation, he 
gladly retired to JNanzianzus, where he was bishop until 
383 ; after which he retired from public life, and died 
a.d. 389. "He composed abundance of excellent dis- 
courses, several poems, and letters. We must yield him 
the prize of eloquence before all the Fathers. He cer- 
tainly carried it from all of his time, for the purity of 
his words," &c. 

Q. What is known of Gregory of Nyssa ? 

A. That he was a younger brother of St Basil, born 
about 331 ; became Bishop of Nyssa about 372 ; was 



IV 



.] AND WRITERS OF THE EARLY CHURCH. 153 



banished by Valens in 374, but he returned in 378. He 
assisted in several councils at Constantinople, where he 
was held in great esteem. " This Father wrote several 
books, viz. Commentaries upon the Holy Scriptures, Dog- 
matical Discourses, Sermons on the Mysteries, Discourses 
upon Morality, Panegyrics upon Saints, Funeral Orations, 
and Letters about Discipline. He attacked Eunomius in a 
work consisting of twelve books, and laid down a method 
of refuting the Jews, Heathens, and Heretics, in his great 
Catechism. He gave most faithful rules for the conversion 
of sinners in his treatise on Penance ; and laid down very 
wise directions for penitents in his Canonical Letter to 
Letoius." (Dupiri). 

Q. Give a short account of the life of St Ambrose. 

A. He was the son of the Praafectus Praetorius of 
Gaul ; was born a. d. 340 ; he next became assessor of 
Probus, his father's successor, who made him governor 
of the district of Milan ; and was chosen, whilst only a 
catechumen, bishop of that diocese, a.d. 347. He then 
gave up all his property, and was baptized. In the year 
381, he presided at a council of Aquileia, where two 
Arian presbyters were condemned. In 389 he rebuked 
the Emperor Theodosius, for the massacre he made at 
Thessalonica, and obliged him, in consequence, to undergo 
public penance. In 393 he was forced to retire from 
Milan to Florence, but returned in 394, and died in peace 
in 397. 

Note: — "He applied himself particularly to give his people 
a right notion of the Christian morality, in his Commentaries or 
Discourses on the Holy Scriptures. He collected the principal 
maxims thereof in his Treatise of Offices, which he composed in 
imitation of those of Cicero. He wrote several Treatises concern- 
ing Virginity, and for the instruction of virgins. He explained 
what concerns Baptism and the Eucharist, in his Discourses of 
Mysteries. In his two Books of Penitence he describes the 
practice of the ancient public Penance. He likewise composed 
dogmatical Discourses, as five Books concerning Faith, or the 
Trinity, against the Avians ; three books concerning the Holy 
Ghost, and a discourse about the Incarnation. We find handled 

7—5 



154 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND WRITERS OF THE CHURCH. [LECT. 

in his Letters the important points of Discipline and Morality." 
(Dupin). 

Q. Three remarkable authors flourished about the 
beginning of the fifth century. Give some account of 
them. 

A. (l) St John Chrysostom among the Greeks. 
(2) St Jerom and St Augustin among the Latins. Chrvr 
sostom was born at Antioch in Syria, a.d. 354. After 
receiving a liberal education, when about twenty years of 
age he retired for four years into the mountains, and 
there led a monastic life. He returned to Antioch, in 
381, where he was ordained deacon, and commenced 
author at the age of twenty-six. Five years afterwards 
he was ordained presbyter, and in the course of the next 
twelve years he wrote and delivered a number of Homi- 
lies, Orations, and Sermons. In the year 398 he was 
made Patriarch of Constantinople; in 403 he was banished, 
but was recalled immediately afterwards ; in 404 he was 
forcibly removed to Cucusus in Armenia, but in conse- 
quence of the failure of his health, he was ordered to be 
removed to Colchis. He died on the road thither on the 
14th of September, 407, aged fifty-two years and eight 
months. St Augustin was born a.d. 354, at Tagaste, in 
Numidia. At the age of seventeen he was sent to study 
rhetoric at Carthage, where he led a dissipated life, and 
became a Manichean. After returning to Tagaste for a 
short time, he returned to Carthage in 380, where he 
taught rhetoric for three years. He went to Rome a.d. 
383, and the next year to Milan, where he was reclaimed 
by St Ambrose, and baptized a.d. 387. In the year 388 
he returned to Carthage, and spent three years in study 
and retirement ; in 391 he was ordained presbyter at 
Hippo (now Bona), and laboured there with great success, 
until he was made bishop in 395. He continued to hold 
the see of Hippo until his death in 430. 

Note : — An account of St Jerom, and various other authors 
is given in the Introduction, pp. 1 — 6. 



V.] HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, &C. - 155 



fcerture V. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE ICONOCLASTIC 
AND PHOTIAN CONTROVERSIES TO THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. 



Q. Mark out the periods during which image-worship 
seems to have sprung up. 

A.~ Bingham proves that during the first three cen- 
turies images and pictures in the churches were totally 
unknown, but towards the end of the fourth, and the 
beginning of the fifth centuries, Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in 
Campania (a.d. 409 — 431), and Felix, Bishop of Con- 
stantinople, introduced pictures to instruct the ignorant, 
and to occupy their attention during the celebration of the 
Festivals of the Church, and in the sixth and seventh 
centuries the worship of them was quite general. 

Q. What steps were taken by an emperor to abolish 
the use of pictures in Churches ? Were they successful ? 

A. Leo the Isaurian (a.d. 716 — 741), for some 
unknown reason, was opposed to their use ; in 726 he 
forbid the worship, and in 730 he caused all pictures to 
be removed from the Churches. At Constantinople he 
deposed Germanus the Patriarch for opposing his order, 
but at Rome, and in those parts of the East which were 
under the influence of the Saracens, the order was dis- 
regarded with impunity. 

Q. What course was adopted by the two successors 
of Leo the Isaurian with regard to picture-worship ? 

A. His son, Constantine Copronymus (a.d. 741 — 775), 
in 754 called a general Council at Constantinople, in which 
the worship of pictures was condemned ; but at Rome, and 
in the East, its decrees were disregarded. The picture- 
worshippers were however compelled to take refuge in the 
monasteries, whence their zeal often shewed itself in open 
violence, and in consequence great severities were exercised 



156 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE [lECT. 

towards the monks and their adherents. The next emperor 
also, Leo IV. (a.d. 775 — 780), continued to enforce the 
laws against the party. 

Q. Under what circumstances was the seventh General 
Council called, and what decisions did it adopt on the 
subject of pictures ? How long did they remain in force ? 

A, Irene the empress having become guardian (a.d. 
(780 — 802) to the infant son of her late husband, Leo IV., 
called a general Council at Nice, which was attended by 
the legates of the Pope, in which the acts of the previous 
Council, in 754, were repealed, and jiew ones passed in 
favour of the worship. " They ranked the Iconoclasts 
with the impious Nebuchadnezzar, who removed the cheru- 
bim from the mercy-seat. And as they admitted that God 
could only be ' worshipped in spirit and truth,' they would 
not permit images of the Deity to be formed ; yet, at the 
same time, they maintained that this prohibition could not 
properly extend to images representing Christ's humanity." 
(Grier's Epitome, p. 128). Her two successors (802 — $13) 
enforced these decrees ; but Leo V. (813 — 820) called a 
Synod at Constantinople in 815, which decided against the 
Use of images, and its decrees were enforced by the two 
next emperors, but Theodora fully established their worship 
in 842, and instituted a yearly festival in which this tri- 
umph was commemorated. 

Q. What part was taken by the Gallican Church in 
the controversy concerning image-worship ? 

A. In the year 790, Charlemagne caused a formal 
refutation of the decrees of the second Council of Nice to 
be drawn up. It was called the Caroline book, and 
although Pope Adrian endeavoured to soften down all 
opposition by alleging that images were only useful to 
raise the mind up to God, yet a Council at Frankfort, in 
787, and another at Paris, a.d. 825, under Louis the 
Meek, both declared against the worship. 

Q. How was the Papal power introduced into 
Germany ? 



V.] ICONOCLASTIC AND PHOTIAN CONTROVERSIES* 157 

A. Winifred, an English monk, having been very 
successful in introducing Christianity amongst the German 
nations (a.d. 715 — 755), the Popes made him bishop and 
apostolic vicar in that country, and he took up his resi- 
dence at Cologne. 

Q. What sect revived the Gnostic heresy about 
a.d. 660? 

A. The Paulicians, who were generally persecuted ; 
and in the year 845, when Theodora endeavoured to ex- 
terminate them, they -withdrew to a place called Tephrike, 
on the skirts of the empire, where, with the aid of the 
Saracens, they maintained their independence. 

Q. Under what circumstances was the power of the 
Popes established amongst the Franks ? 

A. When Leo Isauricus, about 730, ordered the 
removal of the images from the churches, nothing but the 
fear of the Lombards restrained Pope Gregory from with- 
drawing his allegiance to the Emperor. In the meanwhile, 
Pepin and Carlman, kings of the Franks, having (in 743) 
requested assistance from Rome to organize their ecclesi- 
astical affairs, Pope Zachary (741 — 752) sent to that 
country Boniface as his legate, who brought both the kings 
of the Franks and the national Church under the Papal 
influence. 

Q. Whence arose the connexion between King Pepin 
and Pope Zachary ? 

A. Pepin was mayor of the palace to Childeric III., 
whom, through the influence of the Pope, he dethroned in 
the year 752, and in return Pope Zachary received his 
assistance against the incursions of the Lombards. Pope 
Stephen II. visited Pepin, and crowned him a second time 
in the year 754. 

Q. What assistance did Pepin grant to the see of 
Rome in return for its support ? 

A. Aistulph, king of the Lombards (a.d. 752), haying 
gained possession of the Exarchate of Ravenna, and medi- 
tated the conquest of the whole of Italy, Pope Stephen II. 



158 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE [lECT. 

(752 — 757) applied to Pepin for aid. In two campaigns 
(a.d. 754 and 755) Pepin drove out the Lombards, as- 
sumed for himself the Patriarchate of Pome, and made the 
Pope Patricius of the Exarchate, still acknowledging, how- 
ever, the supremacy of the Greek Emperor. 

Q. State the circumstances under which the Popes 
finally became temporal princes. 

A. The Lombards having disturbed the arrangement 
made by Pepin, a. d. 775, Pope Adrian I. summoned 
Charlemagne, his son, King of the Franks, to his assist- 
ance, and the kingdom of the Lombards was destroyed 
a.d. 774. " After having confirmed and enlarged the 
grants made by Pepin, Charlemagne exercised all the 
imperial rights at Rome in relation to the Pope, as well as 
in other respects ; till at length Italy ceased to be subject 
to the Greek Emperor, even in name, and Charlemagne 
(novus Constantinus) received the imperial crown of the 
Western Empire from the hands of Leo III. (Dec. 25th, 
800). The Pope assumed all the rights of the former 
Exarch [of Ravenna], including the Patriarchate of Rome ; 
Rome continuing, however, to be an imperial city, and the 
Emperor to hold the supreme sway therein." {Gieseler, 
Vol. ii. p. 17.) 

Q. What privileges did Charlemagne confirm to the 
Church? 

A. In the year 779 he granted the tithes to the 
Church ; every church also was endowed with a certain 
portion of land (mansus ecclesiasticus), to be held by the 
clergy free of all rent or taxes; many estates were 
converted into ecclesiastical fiefs ; and some churches were 
invested with privileges peculiar to royalty. Every pre- 
late appointed an advocate (advocati ecclesiw) for the 
transaction of his secular affairs ; the clergy were more 
than ever exempted from the civil courts ; and their right 
of arbitration, granted by Constantine, was in certain cases 
converted into a power of final decision. 

Q. State the origin of the power of excommuni- 



V.] ICONOCLASTIC AND PIIOTIAN CONTROVERSIES. 159 

cation, which was acquired by the Church in the eighth 
century. 

A. In the primitive Church a power of excommuni- 
cation, as far as church-communion was concerned, was 
exercised from the time of St Paul ; but when the barbarians 
were converted, the Pagan excommunication, which ex- 
cluded the offender from all civil or religious privileges 
whatever, was adopted. 

Q. What contest, besides the Iconoclastic, divided the 
Eastern and Western Churches in the eighth century ? 

A. Whether the Holy Ghost proceeded from the 
Father and the Son (Jilioqiie), as held by the Latins, or 
from the Father only, as taught by the Greeks. 

Q. Give some account of the controversy concerning 
the insertion of Jilioqiie in the Creed. 

A. The Council of Toledo, a.d. 589, first inserted it 
in the Constantinopolitan Creed of 381, and it appears to 
have been generally acquiesced in by the Latin Church ; 
but the subject having been brought under the notice of 
Charlemagne, by some monks of Jerusalem, he referred it 
to a Council at Aix-la-Chapelle, a.d. 809; it was also 
discussed at Rome, and at length Leo III. approved of the 
doctrine, but disapproved of the insertion of the word in 
the Creed, and wished it to be gradually dropped. 

Q. What was meant by the Adoption controversy ? 

A. Whether Christ as man was only the adopted 
Son of God. It was contested with great bitterness from 
about 790 to 800, but by the exertions of Alcuin it soon 
sunk into oblivion. 

Q. An entirely new controversy arose in the Latin 
Church in the middle of the ninth century ; give a brief 
account of the actors in, and subject of, the dispute. 

A. Paschasius Radbertus, a monk and abbot of Cor- 
bey, about a.d. 831 (died 865), was the first who attempted 
to reduce the fluctuating expressions, long in use, with 
regard to the body and blood in the Holy Eucharist, to a 
regular system. 



160 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE [lECT. 

Note : — " Upon the presentation of this book, enlarged and 
improved, to Charles the Bald, in the year 845, a great dispute 
arose out of it. Paschasius taught, in general, that in the Lord's 
supper, after the consecration, there remained only the form and 
appearance of bread and wine ; and that the real body, or the 
flesh and blood of Christ, were present ; and indeed, the identical 
body, that was born of the Virgin, suffered on the cross, and arose 
from the tomb. This doctrine seemed, to many, to be new and 
strange; and especially the last part of it. Rabanus Maurus 
therefore, Heribald, and others, opposed it ; but on different 
grounds. And the Emperor, Charles the Bald, commanded two 
men of distinguished learning and talents, Batramn and John 
Scotus, to give a true exposition of that doctrine, which Radbert 
was supposed to have corrupted. Both of ^them did so ; but the 
work of Scotus is lost; and that of Ratramn, which is still 
extant, has given occasion to much disputation, both in former 
ages and in the present." (Mosheim, pt. n. ch. iii. §. 19.) 

Q. By whom was the controversy respecting pre- 
destination revived in the ninth century ? What doctrines 
did he maintain ? 

A. By Godeschaleus, a German monk. He held 
that God had, from eternity, predestinated some to ever- 
lasting life, and others to everlasting misery ; that the 
Almighty did not really will or desire the salvation of all 
mankind, but only that of the elect : and that Christ did 
not die for the whole human race, but only for those 
whom God pre-ordained to eternal happiness. 

Q. Give a brief account of the fate of Godeschaleus, 
and the reception with which his doctrines met. 

A. Rabanus Maurus accused him of teaching a pre- 
destination unto sin ; he was condemned at a Synod at 
Mentz, a. d. 848 ; and delivered over to Hincmar, Arch- 
bishop of Rheims, his metropolitan, for punishment, who, 
after treating him with great cruelty, imprisoned him. 
Godeschaleus maintained that he only taught the doctrine 
of St Augustin. Remigius, Archbishop of Lyons, openly 
supported him, but at length Godeschaleus was imprisoned, 
and died in 868, while under the ban of the Church. 

Q. State briefly the origin and progress of the Pho- 
tian controversy, 



V.] ICONOCLASTIC AND PHOTIAN CONTROVERSIES. 161 

A. The Emperor Michael III. having, a. d. 858, 
deprived Ignatius of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, 
and appointed Photius in his place, the Pope, Nicholas L, 
on being invited to adjust the schism, acted as a judge 
instead of a mediator. And although his legates, in 861, 
declared in favour of Photius, jet he, at a Synod held at 
Rome in 863, annulled all that they had done, and decided 
in favour of Ignatius. Another cause of difference arose 
from the Pope having sent teachers to the king of Bul- 
garia, who had been converted by the Greeks, upon which 
Photius summoned a Synod at Constantinople, by an En- 
cyclica or Circular, a.d. 867, and the Pope was formally 
condemned. When, however, Basil the Macedonian became 
Emperor, Photius was banished in 867, condemned at a 
synod at Rome 868, and then in the eighth General Council 
at Constantinople, a.d. 870. After the death of Ignatius, 
a.d. 878, Photius was restored and acknowledged by the 
Pope, who thus expected to secure the jurisdiction over 
Bulgaria, but, on failing in this, he retracted everything, 
and again condemned him. Photius was at length deposed 
and imprisoned by Leo the Wise, a. d. 886, and died shortly 
afterwards. 

Q. What accusations were contained in the Circular 
of Photius against the see of Rome ? 

A. He alleged (l) That they fasted on the Sabbath. 
(2) That in the first week in Lent they permitted the use 
of milk and cheese. (3) That they prohibited their priests 
from marrying, and separated married men from their 
wives at their ordination. (4) That they authorized bishops 
only to anoint baptized persons with the Chrism. (5) That 
they had added Filioque to the Creed of Constantinople. 

Q. Explain what is meant by the Pseudo-Isidorian 
Decretals. 

A. As the great object of the Church of Rome was 
to give its claims of power over other Churches an historical 
basis, nothing was found more effectual than urging the 
gesta, or acts of former bishops, and the decrees of early 



162 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE [LECT. 

emperors, to support it. This soon led to the forgery of 
Decretals ; and a collection, which went under the name of 
the Pseudo-Isidorian, was used to advance their power 
under the weak rule of Charlemagne's successors. They 
are supposed to have been written in France, between a.d. 
829 and 845, and were soon afterwards appealed to as 
authorities by Pope Nicholas I., and allowed to be genuine, 
without any material opposition, until the time of the 
Reformation. 

Q. Give an account of the " Donation of Constantine." 

A. It was a forged decree of Constantine the Great, 
in which it was stated, that on removing the seat of 
government to the East, he had granted both the spiritual 
and temporal government of the Western Empire to the 
Bishops of Rome, and that, as the successors of St Peter 
and Vicars of Christ, they had unbounded dominion over 
all churches, nations, and kings. 

Q. In what manner were the Bishops of Rome elected 
from the time of Constantine to that of Charles the Bald ? 
(a.d. 312—875.) 

A. They were elected by the bishops, priests, nobles, 
and people of Rome, but could not be consecrated without 
the consent of the Emperor. Under Louis the Meek, 
Stephen V. and Pascal I. did not wait for this confirmation ; 
but on Eugene II. attempting to follow their example, 
Lothaire, who was associated with Louis in the empire, 
resumed the imperial right. Charles the Bald, who suc- 
ceeded Louis, a.d. 840, rejected all interference of the 
Popes in France, until the year 875, when he received the 
imperial crown from Pope John VIIL, and in return re- 
leased his see from the necessity of obtaining the imperial 
consent for the consecration of its bishops. 

Q. What changes were introduced into the mode of 
electing the Popes between the times of Charles the Bald 
and Gregory VII. ? (a.d. 875—1056). 

A. From a.d. 875 to 960 the clergy and laity 
elected the Popes in a most tumultuous manner, at which 



V.] ICONOCLASTIC AND PHOTIAN CONTROVERSIES. 163 

time Otho the Great resumed the ancient imperial authority. 
In 964 a Council at Rome conferred on Otho and his suc- 
cessors the sole power of appointing the Popes ; Otho also 
published an edict, which was generally enforced for the 
next eighty years, which forbid any election being made 
without the Emperors having previously consented ; but in 
the year 1047, this power of nominating the Pope was 
confined to Henry III. personally, and not to the throne. 

Q. Two important events affected the see of Rome 
soon after the death of the Emperor Henry III. a.d. 1056. 
What were they ? 

A. (1) In the year 1059, Pope Nicholas II. passed 
a law, by which the election of the Popes was entrusted 
to the College of Cardinals ; the ancient privileges of the 
Emperors being reserved, and the confirmation of the 
inferior clergy being still required. (2) The Norman, 
Robert Guiscard, consented to hold Apulia, Calabria, and 
Sicily, as a vassal of the see of Rome, and to pay an 
annual tribute. 

Q. What persons originally constituted the College 
of Cardinals ? 

A. The seven bishops of the city and territory of 
Rome, and the twenty-eight ministers of the twenty-eight 
principal Roman Churches. 

Q. A distinguished Pope flourished in the eleventh century. 
Give a brief account of his early life. 

A. Hildebrand was probably a native of Tuscany, and al- 
though of low origin, he spent the early part of his life in Rome, 
where he " was scholar to Lawrence, Archbishop of Melpha, and 
was in particular friendship with Benedict IX. and Gregory VI. 
He accompanied the latter into Germany, and after his death 
retired into the Abbey of Cluni, where he continued until Bruno, 
Bishop of Toul, who was designed Pope a.d. 1049 by Henry the 
Emperor, going through France, took him along with him to 
Rome. He was no sooner got there, but he renewed the friend- 
ship he had had with, Benedict IX., and in a little time grew 
so rich and powerful, that he became Master of Affairs, and held 
the Popes in a kind of dependence. It was he who negotiated 
between the Emperor and the people of Rome the election of 



164 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE [lECT. 

Victor II., who sent him into France in quality of Legate. He 
removed Benedict IX., and got Nicolas II. elected in his place, 
who made him Archdeacon. In fine, it was by means of him 
that Cadalous was removed, and Alexander II. put in the Holy 
See. He absolutely governed all affairs, as well civil as eccle- 
siastical, during the pontificate of that Pope, and was proclaimed 
sovereign pontiff the same day that he died. He asked of Henry 
the confirmation of his election. That prince took some time to 
deliberate, but finding that it would be in vain to oppose the 
ordination of Hildebrand, because he was more powerful in Rome 
than himself, consented to it. Thus Hildebrand was ordained 
priest, and then Bishop of Rome, in the month of July 1073. 
At his ordination he took the name of Gregory YII." (Abridg- 
ment of Dupin.) K 

Q. State briefly some circumstances which exhibit 
the comprehensiveness of the views of Gregory VII. for 
the aggrandizement of the Church. 

A. (l) He demanded from the Emperor of the 
Romans a profession of subjection and allegiance. (2) He 
informed Philip I. of France " that both his kingdom and 
his soul were under the dominion of St Peter's Vicar, who 
had the power to bind and to loose him in heaven and 
earth," and that the kingdom of France was tributary to 
the Holy See. (3) He maintained that Saxony was a 
fief holden under the same see. (4) He also extended 
his pretensions over the kingdom of Spain. (5) He de- 
manded of William the Conqueror the arrears of Peter- 
pence, and summoned him to do homage for the kingdom 
of England. (6) He required the kings of Hungary, 
Denmark, and Germany, to put their dominions under his 
protection, as Vicar Apostolic of St Peter. 

Q. Whence arose the dispute between Gregory VII. 
and Henry IV. Emperor of the Romans ? 

A. In a council held by Gregory at Rome, A.D. 
1074, it was determined to correct two abuses in church- 
discipline and government ; viz. (l) the marriage or con- 
cubinage of the clergy ; (2) the simoniacal sale of bene- 
fices. Legates were sent into Germany for assembling 
councils, and proceeding against those who were guilty of 



V.] ICONOCLASTIC AND PIIOTIAN CONTROVERSIES. 165 

simony, but neither Henry nor his bishops would suffer any 
steps to be taken against those who were alleged to be 
guilty of the crime ; whereupon Gregory pronounced, in 
a formal edict, " an anathema against whoever received 
the investiture of a bishopric, or abbacy, from the hands 
of a layman, as also against those by whom the investiture 
should be performed." 

Q. Give a brief account of the subsequent contests 
between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. 

A. In the year 1075 Gregory excommunicated five 
counsellors of Henry for simoniacal practices, and also sent 
legates to summon the king to Rome to clear himself of 
the crimes laid to his charge, upon which Henry convoked 
a council of German bishops at Worms, and deposed Gre- 
gory. The Pope then excluded Henry from church-com- 
munion and his throne, and dissolved the oath of allegiance 
which his subjects had taken. The Suabian chiefs, with 
Duke Rodolph and the Saxons, revolted from Henry, and, 
a.d. 1076, in conjunction with Gregory, suspended him 
from his dignity until the matter should be investigated. 
In the following January Henry submitted to the greatest 
indignities from Gregory at Canossa, to obtain release from 
the ban. Soon after, however, being influenced by the 
Lombards, he again opposed Gregory, upon which the 
chiefs of Suabia and Saxony (a.d. 1077) elected Rodolph 
emperor in his stead. Notwithstanding this, the Pope did 
not openly declare for Rodolph, until Henry suffered a 
complete defeat a.d. 1080 ; Henry then deposed the Pope 
again at the synods of Mentz and Brixen, where Guibert, 
Archbishop of Ravenna, was chosen Pope, (but was not 
consecrated untill 1084), when he took the name of Cle- 
ment III. In the October of the same year, Rodolph was 
slain, and Henry carried on the war with such success, 
that he became master of the greatest part of Rome, and 
was crowned by Clement. Robert Guiscard, however, with 
his Normans, rescued Gregory, who died at Salernum, May 
25, 1085. 



166 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM GREGORY VII. [LECT. 



ilerture VI. 

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY VII. TO 
THE REFORMATION. A. D. 1085—1515. 



Q. Under what circumstances did the Popes recover 
their ascendancy after the death of Gregory VII.? 

A. Gregory was succeeded by Victor III. until 1087, 
and Urban II. until 1099. Clement III. still urged his 
claims, but the Gregorian party, by electing Henry's son 
Conrad king of Italy, and by favouring the Crusades, gained 
a complete triumph. Pascal II. also succeeded in stirring 
up Henry, the second son of the emperor, to rebellion, so 
that Henry died of a broken heart, a.d. 1106. 

Q. (l) Give the exact dates of the leading events 
of the year 1080. (2) Quote the inscription on Rodolph's 
crown ; and (3) his dying declaration. 

A. (1) On the 27th Jan. 1080, Henry was defeated 
at Fladenheim ; in May the Pope declared for Rodolph ; 
in July Henry chose Clement III. ; in October Rodolph 
was slain. (2) " Petra dedit Petro, Petrus Diadema 
Rudolpho." (3) " Ecce hsec est inanus, qua domino meo 
Heinrico fidem sacramento firmavi, ecce ego jam ejus reg- 
num et vitam derelinquo prgesentem: videte, qui me solium 
ejus conscendere fecistis, ut recta via vestra monita se- 
quentem duxissetis." 

Q. Urban II. even went beyond Gregory VII. in the 
dispute about investitures. How? 

A. Gregory had not forbidden bishops and priests 
to swear fealty to their sovereigns ; but Urban II., at 
the Council of Clermont (a.d. 1095), prohibited them 
from taking the oath of allegiance to any king or layman. 
" Ne episcopus vel sacerdos Regi vel alicui laico in manibus 
ligiam fidelitatem faciant," were the words of the 15th 
canon. 



VI.] TO THE REFORMATION". 167 

Q. After Pope Pascal II. had absolved Henry V. 
from his allegiance to his father, what further connexion 
existed between them ? 

A, Henry conceded to the colleges of canons and 
monks the power of electing the bishops and abbots, but 
still retained that of investiture. Pascal renewed the papal 
decrees against this power a.d. 1107, but in 1110 Henry 
marched into Italy, and extorted this following agreement 
from the Pope, " That the King should relinquish the 
investiture with the staff and the ring, and the bishops 
and the abbots should restore to the emperor the royal 
benefices (beneftcia regalia) which they had received since 
the times of Charlemagne, namely, the power of levying 
tribute, holding lordships, coining money, and the like ;" 
but after a commotion in Rome, " the pontiff conceded to 
the king the right of giving investiture to bishops and 
abbots with the staff and ring. Thus, peace being con- 
cluded, the pontiff placed the imperial diadem on the head 
of Henry." (Mosheim, part n. c. ii.) Disputes afterwards 
arose between the parties, but no permanent change was 
effected previously to the death of the Pope, a.d. 1118. 

Q. In the twelfth century schisms with regard to the 
Popes arose. Explain the circumstances. 

A. After the death of Pascal II. a.d. 1118, the car- 
dinals elected Gelasius II., whilst Henry V. appointed 
Gregory VIII. Gelasius and the cardinals withdrew to 
France, where on the death of the former they elected 
Calixtus II. (a.d. 1119 — 1124), Count of Burgundy, and 
a relative of the Emperor, in his place. After him Hono- 
rius was chosen (a.d. 1124 — 1130). At his death one 
part of the cardinals chose Innocent II., and another 
Anacletus II. Innocent, who was supported by the kings 
of France, England, and Spain, withdrew into France, 
but on the death of his competitor returned to Rome in 
peace, a.d. 1138. 

Q. In what manner was the contest about Investitures con- 
cluded ? 



168 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM GREGORY VII. [lECT. 

A. "At a general diet held at Worms, a. d. 1122, a Concordat 
was agreed to, which declared that, for the future, bishops and 
abbots should be freely chosen by those whose right it was to 
elect ; but in the presence of the Emperor or his representatives : 
that if the electors disagreed among themselves, the Emperor 
should interpose, and using bishops as his councillors, should end 
the contest: that the person elected should take the oath of 
loyalty to the Emperor, receive what were called the regalia 
from his hand, and perform the duties due to him on account of 
them, and that the Emperor should use a different mode of con- 
ferring the regalia from that before practised, and should no 
longer confer human prerogatives by the staff and the ring y 
which were the emblems of sacred or divine power, but by a 
sceptre. This Concordat^ as it is commonly called, was solemnly 
confirmed the next year in the Lateran Council ; and it continues 
in force to our times, although there has been some dispute be- 
tween the pontiffs and the emperors respecting its true import." 
(Moskeim, pt. n. ch. ii.) 

Q. What was the result of the contest between Pope 
Adrian IV. (a.d. 1154 — 1159) and Frederic I., surnamed 
Barbarossa, or Red-Beard? 

A. Frederic, in 1158, amongst other regulations cur- 
tailing the power of the Popes, established the principle 
that "no fiefs should be transferred to another person 
without the knowledge and consent of the lord of whom 
they were held." 

Q. Who succeeded Pope Adrian IV., who died a.d. 
1159 ? 

A. The most numerous and powerful party of the 
cardinals raised to the pontificate Alexander III. (1159— 
1181), while the opposite party elected Victor IV. Alex-? 
ander was obliged to flee to France for safety, and Victor 
died a.d. 1164; but the emperor elected Pascal III. 
(1164 — 1168) in his place. 

Q. Pope Alexander III. (1159 — 1181) had disputes 
with two princes. Give an account of them, 

A. With the Emperor Frederic I., who, after various 
losses, was glad to conclude a treaty of peace at Venice, 
a.d. 1177, and Henry II. of England, who yielded to his 
demands, a.d. 1173. 



VI 



TO THE REFORMATION. 169 



Q. How did Alexander III. contribute to confirm 
the privileges of the Church, and to extend the papal 
authority ? 

A. In the Council of the Lateran, held at Home, 
a.d. 1179, he decreed, (l) That the right of election to 
the pontificate should not only be invested in the cardinals 
alone, but also that the person in whose favour two-thirds 
©f the College of Cardinals voted should be considered as 
the lawful and duly elected Pontiff. (2) That a spiritual 
war should be declared against heretics. (3) That the 
right of recommending and nominating to the order of 
saints should be taken away from councils and bishops, 
and canonization ranked among the greater and important 
causes, the cognizance of which belonged to the Pope alone. 

Q. What changes did Alexander III. make in the 
College of electing Cardinals? 

A. To the original seven Cardinal Bishops, and the 
twenty-eight presbyters of the Church at Rome, Alex- 
ander III. added the prior of the Lateran Church, the 
arch-presbyters of St Peter and St Mary, the abbots of 
St Paul and St Lawrence, and the seven Palatine judges, 
to the College of electing Cardinals. The cardinal deacons 
were subsequently added, but when or by whom has not 
been ascertained. 

Q. Give some account of the later controversies, and 
the final separation, of the Eastern and Western Churches. 

A. From the time that Photius, Patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, issued his circular letter, a.d. 867, the Eastern 
had entertained an increasing distrust of the orthodoxy of 
the Western Church, and when to this was added the 
dispute with regard to the jurisdiction of Bulgaria, it 
required all the efforts of the emperors to hinder the 
quarrel being brought to a crisis. Affairs remained in 
this unsatisfactory state for a long period, when at length, 
(in consequence of a letter, filled with invectives against 
the errors of the Church of Rome, sent, a.d. 1053, 
by Michael Caerularius, patriarch of Constantinople, to 
8 



170 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM GREGORY VII. [lECT. 

John, bishop of Trani, in Apulia,) with a view of re- 
conciling the contending parties, Constantine Monomachus, 
the Eastern emperor, induced Leo IX. to send legates to 
Constantinople ; but they, after a series of mutual re- 
criminations, on the 16th of July, 1054, laid upon the 
altar of St Sophia an act of excommunication against 
Michael, which he immediately answered. The other pa- 
triarchs of the Eastern Church adhered to the Patriarch 
of Constantinople, and a total separation of the two 
Churches ensued. 

Q. Who was Pope at the beginning of the thirteenth 
century ? 

A. Innocent III. (a.d. 1198—1216). 

Q. What circumstance facilitated the encroachments 
of the Roman see about a.d. 1200 ? 

A. The death of Frederic I., leaving a son only three 
years old. 

Q. How does it appear that the power of the Pon- 
tiffs had now (a.d. 1200) nearly arrived at its height? 

A. The Pope had gained the power of nomination 
and collation to almost all ecclesiastical benefices, and 
established, as a principle, that all ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
tion emanated from Rome. Innocent described himself 
as " the successor of St Peter, set up by God to govern 
not only the Church, but the whole world," and this power 
was exercised in the selection of Otho as Emperor ; in 
compelling Philip of France to receive back his queen, 
whom he had put away ; Alfonso IX. of Leon, to put 
away his queen on account of consanguinity ; Sancho L 
of Portugal, to pay his arrears of tribute ; John of Bul- 
garia, to receive his crown at the Pope's hands ; and 
lastly, in compelling John, king of England, to surrender 
his kingdom, and to receive it back as a fief of the see 
of Rome (a.d. 1213). 

Q. What important council was held under Innocent 
III.? For what purposes was it called, and by whom was 
it attended ? 



VI.] TO THE REFORMATION. ] 7l 

A. The twelfth General Council, or the fourth of the 
Lateran, was called a.d. 1215, by Innocent III., with the 
consent of the Emperor Frederic II., for the purpose : 

(1) of reforming the Church and suppressing heresy ; 

(2) of exciting the princes and prelates of Christendom 
to undertake an expedition for the recovery of the Holy 
Land. " Four hundred and twelve bishops ; twice that 
number of abbots, and deputies from absent bishops ; the 
Latin patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem in per- 
son ; (for a few years previously, Constantinople had been 
taken by the Romans; the Greek Church at the same 
time participated in its downfall ;) patriarchal deputies 
also from Antioch and Alexandria attended, and ambas- 
sadors from the Emperors of Constantinople and Germany; 
besides representatives from England, Ireland, France, 
Spain, and Hungaria." (Grier's Epitome, p. 184). 

Q. Who presided at the twelfth General Council 
(a.d. 1215)? Mention some of its leading acts. 

A. Innocent III. He presented seventy canons, which 
were adopted without any debate. The doctrines of tran- 
substantiation and auricular confession were established. 
The third canon compelled all secular powers to " extir- 
pate all heretics marked by the Church of Rome from 
them respective territories, under pain of excommunication; 
and that should they persist for one year in refusing to 
fulfil their obligation, the Pope may declare their vassals 
absolved from their allegiance, and bestow their lands on 
the faithful children of the Church ; and lastly, that such 
persons should incur the penalty of excommunication as 
afforded sustenance, protection, or asylum, to those lying 
under the anathema." 

Q. Two General Councils were held at Lyons in the 
thirteeneth century : mention some of the particulars re- 
lating to them. 

A. Pope Innocent IV. (a.d. 1243 — 1254), to avoid 
the hostility of the Emperor Frederic, whom his prede- 
cessor Gregory IX. had excommunicated, deposed, and 

8—2 



172 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM GREGORY VII. [lECT. 

released his subjects from their allegiance to him, retired 
to Lyons, and in 1245 called the thirteenth General 
Council, in which, besides renewing the law against the 
Emperor, three things were determined : (l) To aid the 
empire of Constantinople against the Greeks ; (2) the 
empire of Germany against the Tartars ; (3) and the 
Holy Land against the Saracens. The fourteenth General 
Council was called by Gregory X. (a.d. 1271 — 1276): 
(1) for affecting a re-union of the Greek and Latin Churches, 
the former being willing to admit that the Holy Ghost pro- 
ceeded from the Son (filioque) as well as the Father ; (2) for 
the relief of the Holy Land ; (3) for the improvement of 
Church discipline, and the reformation of the morals of the 
clergy. 

Q. By whom and when was the jubilee instituted? 
State the origin and design of the festival. 

A. Pope Boniface VIIL, in the year 1299 or 1300, 
who enacted as a law of the Church, that those who should 
in every hundredth year confess their sins and visit the 
churches of St Peter and St Paul, should obtain the entire 
remission of their various offences. Pope Clement VI., in 
compliance with the request of the people of Pome, enacted 
in 1250, that it should be celebrated twice in every cen- 
tury, and in the fifteenth century Paul V. appointed it four 
times in each century. 

Q. What appears to have been the origin and pro- 
gress of the Inquisition ? 

A. In the time of Charlemagne it was the custom to 
enforce the discipline of the Church not only by spiritual 
terrors, but by secular punishments, and in the year 769 
yearly rounds (Synodi) were ordered to be made to inspect 
the state of the Churches. The Lateran Council of 1215 
changed this power of the bishops into a standing Inqui- 
sition, which was still more enforced by a council at Tou- 
louse, a.d. 1229. In order to perfect the system Gregory 
IX. (a.d. 1227 — 1241), in the year 1232 — 33, appointed 
the Dominicans perpetual inquisitors in the name of the 



VI.] TO THE REFORMATION. 173 

Pope, and forced the temporal princes to undertake the 
execution of their decrees. The Inquisition was chiefly 
enforced in the south of France, whilst in Germany the 
opposition was so violent as to check its proceedings. 

Q. A regulation with regard to reading the Scrip- 
tures was made in the thirteenth century. State the 
particulars. 

A. At the Council of Toulouse, a.d. 1229, it was 
decreed that laics should not even have in their possession 
either the Old or New Testament, or translate them into 
the vulgar tongue. A Psalter, Breviary, or Rosary, and 
the hours of the Virgin Mary, in Latin, were recommended 
for their use. 

Q. State briefly the particulars of the contest be- 
tween Philip the Fair of France and Pope Boniface (a.d. 
1294—1303). 

A. Pope Boniface VIII. having in an arbitration be- 
tween Edward I. of England and Philip, given (a.d. 1298) 
offence to the latter, a contest arose between them, during 
which the king having refused to obey a summons from the 
Pope, Boniface issued a bull (unam sanctam) in 1302, in 
which he declared that the doctrine of the sovereign power 
of the Popes was a necessary Article of Faith, and con- 
demned the recognition of two independent powers, the 
temporal and the spiritual, as a Manichean heresy which 
involved the admission of two principles, good and bad. 
The king refused to acknowledge this power, and in the 
following year, in an assembly of his peers, ordered William 
de Nogaret, a celebrated lawyer, to draw up an accusation 
against the Pope, in which he was charged with the crimes 
of heresy and simony, and also demanded the convocation 
of a General Council for his speedy deposition. Upon this 
the Pope excommunicated Philip and his adherents, whilst 
the king sent William de Nogaret, with some others, into 
Italy, to excite a sedition, to seize the person of Boniface, 
and convey him to Lyons. Nogaret levied a small army, 
seized Boniface, who was living in perfect security at 



174 HISTORY OP THE CHURCH FROM GREGORY VII. [lECT. 

Anagni, and treated him in a cruel manner. The inha- 
bitants of Anagni, however, rescued the Pope, and con- 
ducted him to Kome, where he died soon after of an illness 
occasioned by the rage and anguish into which these insults 
had thrown him. 

Q. How did Philip of France act after the death of 
Pope Boniface VIII. a.d. 1303? 

A. On the death of the new Pope, Benedict XI. a. d. 
1304, he caused Clement V. (a.d. 1305 — 1314) to be 
elected, and then prevailed on him to remove the Papal 
residence from Rome to Avignon in Ifrance, where it con- 
tinued for 70 years. 

Q. State some of the advantages which Philip of 
France gained by the removal of the Papal residence to 
Avignon, a.d. 1305. 

A. He compelled Clement V. to institute an enquiry 
into the conduct and to retract the pretensions of Boniface 
VIII. ; to condemn in 1311 the Knights Templars, and to 
allow him to seize their property ; and also to withdraw 
any open opposition to the election of his brother to the 
empire on the death of Albrecht I. in 1308. 

Q. What evil arose from the residence of the Popes at 
Avignon (a.d. 1305—1376) ? 

A. From the distance of the seat of government tumults and 
civil wars arose in Italy; their decrees were treated with less 
respect, and their scanty revenues, derived from their Italian do- 
minions, compelled them to have recourse to oppressive expedients 
to replenish their treasury. " The sale of indulgences and bene- 
fices was increased ; new taxes and tributes were devised ; Re- 
serves, Provisions, and Expectatives, as they were termed, and 
other avaricious impositions were multiplied, which created general 
disgust, and alienated the minds of many from the Church of 
Rome." 

Q. Under what circumstances was the Papal residence 
transferred from Avignon to Rome ? 

A. Pope Gregory XL (a.d. 1370—1378), with the 
view of recovering the privileges and territories that had 
been lately wrested from the see, transferred the pontifical 



VI.] TO THE REFORMATION. 175 

seat from Avignon to Rome, a.d. 1376. He found that 
the influence of the popedom was much diminished, but 
died in 1378, before he had the opportunity of re-establish- 
ing its affairs. 

Q. State briefly the origin of the great schism in the 
Western Church. 

A. On the death of Pope Gregory XL, a.d. 1378, 
the people of Rome insisted that an Italian should be ad- 
vanced to the Popedom, and the cardinals, apprehensive of 
their violence, complied, but they subsequently retired to 
Fondi, and, after declaring that the late election of Urban 
VI. was nothing but a mere ceremony which they were 
forced to perform, elected Robert, count of Geneva, who 
assumed the designation of Clement VII. 

Q. What was generally thought the best method of 
terminating this schism in the popedom? (a.d. 1378 — 
1414.) 

A. That the Popes, both at Rome and Avignon, should 
resign; but although each party proposed this method, 
neither were willing to adhere to it. The Gallican Church, 
after great exertions to obtain an amicable settlement of 
the question, held a council at Paris, a.d. 1397, and, being 
supported by the king, renounced all subjection to both 
Popes. 

Q. In what state was the great Western schism at the 
commencement of the fifteenth century ? What was done 
to heal the division ? 

A. Boniface IX. resided at Rome, and his rival Bene- 
dict XIII. at Avignon. After the death of Boniface, the 
Italian cardinals elected Innocent VII. and Gregory XII. in 
succession, under the express condition that they should 
endeavour to heal the schism. At length Benedict and 
Gregory bound themselves by oath to make a voluntary 
resignation of their positions, should such a step be deemed 
necessary to re-establish the peace of the Church. After 
their violation of this compact, the cardinals of both 
parties assembled at Leghorn, and appointed a General 



176 HISTORT OF THE CHURCH FROM GREGORY VII. [lECT. 

Council at Pisa, a.d. 1409, for a final adjustment of this 
schism. 

Q. How did the Council of Pisa, a.d. 1409, attempt 
to restore peace to the Church ? 

A. It condemned and deposed both Popes ; elected 
Alexander V. in their place ; and on his death at Bologna, 
a.d. 1410, promoted John XXIII. to the see. 

Q. How did Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. act 
after their deposition at Pisa, a.d. 1409 ? 

A. They each convened councils, and continued to 
exercise their functions until the meeting of the Council of 
Constance, a.d. 1414, when Gregory sent in his resigna* 
tion, but Benedict persisted in exercising his functions until 
his death. 

Q. What steps did the Council of Constance take to 
restore the peace of the Church ? 

A. After declaring that the Poman pontiff was subject 
to a General Council, it deposed John XXIII. on account 
of his crimes. Gregory XII. having sent in, by proxy, 
a voluntary resignation, a.d. 1415, and Benedict XIII. 
having been degraded, Otto de Colonna, under the title 
of Martin V., was unanimously elected by all the cardinals, 
on the 11th Nov. 1417, in their stead, to be sole Pope. 

Q. How long did the Council of Constance continue 
its sessions ? What were its principal decrees? 

A. From the 5th Nov. 1414, to the 22nd April, 1418. 
It decreed that the Pope was inferior, and subject to, 
an CEcumenical Council. It condemned the doctrines of 
Wickliffe, and ordered that his bones and writings should 
be burnt ; it deprived the laity of the cup ; it condemned 
Petit's opinion as to the lawfulness of taking away the life 
of a tyrant ; it condemned Jerome of Prague and John 
Hugo, who were both burnt alive by its orders. 

Q. By whom was the Council of Basil summoned? 
how long did it continue its sessions? 

A. By Pope Martin V., a.d. 1431, in accordance 
with the decree of the Council of Sienna, held in 1424, and 



.J TO THE REFORMATION. 177 



VI 



was continued by his successor Eugenius IV. After the 
year 1443 it only existed in name, but it was not finally 
dissolved until 1448. 

Q. Mention some of the acts of the Council of Basil 
(a.d. 1431—1449). 

A. In 1433 it abolished most of the papal Reser- 
vations, and prescribed regular Diocesan and Provincial 
Synods. In 1435 it passed resolutions against the concu- 
binage of the clergy, the precipitate promulgation of inter- 
dicts, and ungrounded appeals to the Pope. Annates were 
also abolished, and some abuses in the celebration of public 
worship were forbidden. In 1436 the papal Reservations 
were abolished, and regulations with regard to the Pope 
and Cardinals passed. In 1437 the Council summoned the 
Pope to appear before it, whilst Eugenius in return trans- 
ferred the Council to Ferrara, and opened a new synod 
there in January 1438. In 1439 the Council of Basil 
deposed Eugenius, and chose Felix V, in his stead ; but 
from this time its acts ceased to have any considerable 
influence. 

Q. The Council of Ferrara was transferred to Flo- 
rence. When and why? State some particulars with 
regard to the Council of Florence. 

A. On account of the breaking out of the plague at 
Ferrara the Pope transferred the Council to Florence in 
1439. The discussions at these councils were chiefly the 
following : whether the Holy Ghost proceeded from the 
Father and from the Son (filioque) ; whether " Purgatory 
was a dark and dismal abode, whence sinners were released 
by sacrifices and alms, in a purified state, after having en- 
dured affliction and anguish ;" or " whether the purgation 
of .the sinner's soul was effected by fire ; ' whether un- 
leavened bread might be used in the eucharist ; and whe- 
ther the Roman Pontiff was the supreme judge and true 
head of the universal Church. 

Q. Give a brief notice of the Popes of the latter half 
of the fifteenth century. 

8—5 



178 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, &C. [lECT. VI.] 

A. Martin V. was succeeded by Nicolas V. (a.d. 
1447 — 1455), who quickly regained much of the power 
which the Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basil, had ex- 
torted from his predecessors, and counteracted most of the 
reforms which they had set on foot. In the year 1449 
Felix V. resigned his pretensions, and in subsequent years 
the Popes, Callixtus III. (a.d. 1455 — 1458), Pius II. (for- 
merly ^Eneas Sylvius, 1458 — 1464), Paul II. (1464— 
1471), were chiefly engaged in extending their power, and 
exciting a new crusade. During the remainder of the 
fifteenth century, the history of the Popes, Sixtus IV., who 
died 1484, Innocent III. in 1492, Alexander VI. in 1503, 
however interesting to the reader of general history, possess 
but little interest for the English student of Ecclesiastical 
History. 

Q. State briefly the circumstances which led to an 
arrangement between the Gallican and Roman Churches at 
the beginning of the sixteenth century. 

A. In the year 1438, Charles VII. King of France 
had, with the consent of the most eminent of his prelates 
and nobles assembled at Bourges, drawn up the Pragmatic 
Sanction, which, in accordance with the decrees of the 
Council of Basil, wrested from the Popes, and restored to 
their ancient possessors, the power of appointment to bishop- 
rics and other ecclesiastical benefices. In the year 1461 
Pope Pius II., and Louis XI. king of France, who then 
received the title of Most Christian, would have abolished 
it, had not the university of Paris prevented them. At 
length, however, Pope Julius II. (a.d. 1503 — 1513), and 
his successor Leo X. (a.d. 1513 — 1521), induced Francis 
I. to abrogate it, and to substitute (in opposition to the 
united efforts of the clergy, universities, parliament, and 
people of France) the Concordat in its stead, which, whilst 
it reserved to the French kings the nomination to the 
bishoprics, and the collation to certain benefices of the 
higher class, restored to the Popes a vexatious power of 
interference in the internal arrangements of the Church. 



HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, 



PART THE THIRD. 

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH. 



%tlt\XXt I. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 

Q. State some reasons for supposing that St Paul 
visited Britain. 

A. Clemens Romanus says that St Paul preached 
as far as the utmost bounds of the west. St Jerom, that 
he laboured unto the western parts. Theodoret, that he 
brought salvation to the Isles of the Ocean; and that 
after his release from Rome he travelled into Spain, and 
other nations. Writers of the sixth and seventh centuries 
expressly mention his mission to the island. The late 
Bishop Burgess, after a careful examination of the subject, 
was fully convinced that St Paul indisputably visited Britain. 

Q. What evidence may be gathered from early 
writers as to the early introduction of Christianity into 
Britain? 

A. Gildas, our earliest historical writer, intimates 
that Christianity was introduced into Britain before the 
defeat of Boadicea. Justin Martyr, in his " Dialogue 
with Trypho the Jew," written about a.d. 167, asserts 
that Christianity was known in every country. Irenseus, 
bishop of Lyons about a.d. 167, says that the Celts 
had at that time been converted. Tertuliian, in his 
Treatise "Against the Jews," written about a.d. 200, 
(Pamelius says 198, Allix after Baronius, 208), says, that 



180 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

parts of Britain, inaccessible to the Roman arms, were 
subdued by Christ* 

Q. What is Bede's account of its conversion ? 

A. That a British king, Lucius, about a.d. 180, 
sent an embassy to Pope Eleutherius, praying him to 
send him teachers of the Christian religion, and that 
the Pope sent Fugatius and Damianus, who baptized 
Lucius and many of his subjects. 

Note : — " Baronius and Usher tell us, that St Peter came 
into Britain in the twelfth year of Nero, and staid a long time 
here. Nicephorus saith, that Simon Zelotes carried the doc- 
trine of the Gospel unto the western sea, and to the Britannic 
Islands. The learned Archbishop Matthew Parker, Bishop God- 
win, Mr Camden, and others, do assert, that St Paul himself 
preached the Gospel to this island after his enlargement from 
his first captivity at Rome; where, some say, he continued 
preaching five years. And this, say they, he did at the insti- 
gation of Claudia, a Noble British woman. Gildas, our own 
countryman, Poly dor Virgil, Mr Fox, Sir Henry Spelman, and 
many others, tell us, that Joseph of Arimathea, came into this 
island, and preached the Gospel here, being sent hither by 
Philip and James the Apostles. That he was in this land, 
is confirmed, not only by divers histories, but also by ancient 
monuments." 

Q Quote the purport of the description of an ancient 
historian of the sufferings of the British under an Emperor 
of Rome. 

A. Gildas relates, that under Diocletian, a.d. 303? 
" The churches were thrown to the ground ; the sacred 
books were burned on the public ways ; the clergy and 
laity were doomed to die ; and numbers of Christians fled 
into the woods, or concealed themselves in caves ; so that 
in many places scarcely a vestige of Christianity remained." 

Q. Give some account of the first British martyr. 

A Amphibalus, a Christian priest, during the per- 
secution under the Emperor Diocletian fled for refuge to 
the house of Alban, who, although he was a Roman citizen 
and held a command in its army, was a Britain by birth. 
In a very short time Alban was converted by his guest, so 



i/j EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 181 

that when the soldiers came to arrest Amphibalus, Alban, 
having put on his clothes, was led to the tribunal in his 
place ; but as soon as the mistake was found out he ac- 
knowledged himself a Christian, and was beheaded on the 
same day, on a rising ground, near the town of Verulam, 
on which a Church was afterwards built, and called St 
Albans, in honour of him who was the first British martyr. 
He suffered about a.d. 305. 

Q. How did the Caesar, Constantius Chlorus, and his 
son Constantine the Great, treat the British Christians ? 

A. Constantius Chlorus protected them as much as 
his position as Caesar enabled him, but as the edict of the 
Emperor was paramount, the Christians suffered from the 
cruelty of the Roman officers ; but when Constantine, and 
his son after him, became emperors, they treated them 
with distinguished kindness. 

Q. What decisive evidence do we possess of the 
form of government and early prosperity of the British 
Churches ? 

A. That it was episcopal is known from the fact, 
that Eborius, bishop of York, Restitutus, bishop of Lon- 
don, Adelphius, bishop of Colchester, or, as some think, 
Caer-leon, Sacerdos, a presbyter, and Arminius, a deacon, 
attended, in the year 313, a Council held at Aries in 
France against the Donatists. British bishops were pre- 
sent at the Council of Nice, in Bithynia a.d. 325, which 
was held for the suppression of Arianism, as we learn from 
St Athanasius and Hilary of Poictiers. British bishops 
were also present at the Councils of Sardica, a. d. 347, and 
of Ariminum in 360. At Ariminum three only of the 
British bishops consented to receive the allowance made 
them by the Emperor to defray their expenses. 

Q. Under what circumstances did the British Chris- 
tians send for assistance from a neighbouring Church ? 

A. The native bishops being unable to withstand the 
disseminators of the Pelagian doctrines, invoked assistance 
from the neighbouring Gallic Church, which despatched 



182 THE HISTORY OF THE 



LECT. 



Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, and Lucus, bishop of Tro yes, 
to their assistance. A public conference was held at Ve- 
rulam, a.d. 329, before a great concourse of people, between 
the Gallic missionaries and the disseminators of Pelagianism, 
in which even the latter were convinced by the former to 
abandon their error. 

" Germanus having baptized multitudes of Pagan converts in 
the river Alen, marched with an army of them against the 
Pagans whom he found in the North-East of Wales. Here he 
chose an hollow dale surrounded with hills, near the village, called 
at this day by the English " MaTlS y " by the British " <&uttrcruV 
in Flintshire, where the field at this day retains the name of 
" JHae£=<§arm0n," or German's field. Here Germanus placed 
his men in ambush, with instructions, that at a signal given 
they should all shout Halleluiah three times with their might; 
which was all done accordingly. Hereat the Pagans, without 
striking a stroke, confusedly ran away, and many were drowned 
for speed in the river Alen. After this victory Germanus pre- 
pared for his return." 

Q. Was this the only service rendered to the British 
Church by Germanus ? 

A. No : about three years afterwards he again 
returned accompanied by Severus, and at the Synod of 
London succeeded in eradicating Pelagianism. " He 
brought with him at his second visit two eminent Christian 
teachers, Dubricius and Iltutus ; the first was elected Bishop 
of Llandaff ; the second had a college of pupils at a place 
called from him Llanyltad, or ' St Iltad's,' in Glamorgan- 
shire. Both were of great service to the distressed Britons. 
A more famous place of education was that which St Ger- 
main seems to have founded in North Wales, the monastery 
of Bangor-Iscoed, near Malpas and Wrexham, on the Dee ; 
the remains of which were still visible, after the lapse of a 
thousand years, a short time before the Reformation. 
The memory of St Germain, and of the benefits he did to 
the British or Welsh Church, is preserved in the name of 
Llanarmon, ' St Germains,' in Denbighshire, and the town 
named after him in Cornwall, which was afterwards for a 



I.] EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 183 

short time under the Saxons made a bishop's see. He 
died on a visit to Italy, a.d. 448, the year before the 
Saxons first established themselves in Britain." (Chur- 
ton's Early English Cliurch, p. 15.) 

Q. State briefly the circumstances under which 
Christianity was nearly extinguished in Britain. 

A. Vortigern, king of the Britons, not only called 
in (a.d. 449) the assistance of the Saxons, who were 
heathens, but also married the heathen daughter of Hen- 
gist, their leader, by which step he so alienated the 
affections of the clergy and the nobles, that they chose his 
son Vortimer to reign in his stead ; but after a series of 
disasters, the Saxons prevailed, and drove the greater part 
of the native Christians into Cornwall, Wales, and the 
Northern mountains. 

Q. There is only one work of an ancient British 
bishop extant. Mention some particulars with regard 
to it. 

A. About a.d. 420 lived Fastidius, Bishop of Lon- 
don, who wrote a short treatise, De Vita Christiana, 
addressed to a pious widow named Fatalis. It is a prac- 
tical treatise, in which he exhorts Christians to imitate the 
actions of their Saviour, and shews that to live an upright 
and pious life was the surest way to obtain grace and 
mercy from God. 

Q. Who was St Ninian ? 

A. He was a native of North Wales. After visiting 
Borne, and becoming thoroughly acquainted with the rites 
and customs of the Church, he converted the southern Picts, 
about a.d. 420, and became Bishop of Whithern, or Can- 
dida Casa, in Galloway, where he built a church of free- 
stone, and settled a regular ecclesiastical government. 

Q. By what means is Christianity said to have been 
introduced into Ireland ? 

A. Whether Christianity was introduced into Ireland 
at the same time, and by the same means, as into Britain, 
is only matter of conjecture. Many of the expressions of 



184 THE HISTORY OF THE [leCT. 

the ancient authors, such as Clemens Romanus, and others, 
are equally applicable to both ; but the first authentic 
notice of its introduction is supplied by Prosper of Aqui- 
taine, an ancient writer, who says, that Pope Caelestine, in 
the year 431, having learnt that Christianity had made 
some progress in the island, consecrated Palladius, and sent 
him as bishop to the converted Scots in Ireland. Usher 
supposes that bishops existed before that time, and that 
Palladius was sent in the quality of their first archbishop. 
This the Romanists deny, and allege that Palladius, meet- 
ing with considerable opposition, retired to Scotland, and 
died there in the same year, and was succeeded by St 
Patrick, a.d. 432. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to the life of 
St Patrick. 

A. He appears to have been a native of the British 
isles, and, after receiving part of his education under St 
Martin of Tours and Germanus, to have gone to Rome, 
where Cselestine consecrated him as successor to Palladius 
in Ireland. " This Pope called him Patrick, and made 
him archbishop of the Scots. When he came to his charge 
in Ireland, he was wonderfully successful there, and made, 
as it were, a thorough conversion of the country.'' (Collier, 
Book i. cent, v.) It is also reported that St Patrick, in 
the year 449, came to " Glastonbury, where he lived 39 
years as abbot of that place. And so great was his credit, 
that after his death and burial there, that church, that 
formerly was dedicated to the Virgin Mary alone, was in 
after-ages jointly consecrated to her and St Patrick." 

Q. Give an account of St Columba and the monastery 
of Icolmkill. 

A. He was born in Ireland about 532, and after 
being ordained a presbyter, preached to the Northern 
Picts about a.d. 563. After converting that nation, Bridius 
its king gave him the island of Iona, or Icolm, for a 
monastery. He had previously founded a similar institu- 
tion in Ireland, called Dearmach, i. e. " a field of oaks." 



I.] EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 185 

From these two numerous other monasteries arose, all of 
which were subject to that of Icolmkill, where the saint 
was buried, a.d. 597. " This little island was always 
governed by an abbot in priest's orders, who had not only 
a jurisdiction over the laity, but, by a strange and unpre- 
cedented singularity, ' or dine inusitato,' as Bede speaks, 
was likewise superior to the bishops of the place ; because 
St Columba, the first missionary and abbot, was no more 
than a priest." (Collier.) 

Q. Describe the state of the British Christians in the 
sixth century. 

A. In the year 519 the Saxon heptarchy was com- 
pleted, and the Britons either retired to Brittany in France, 
or took refuge in their fastnesses in Cornwall and Wales, 
where Arthur became their king, at the age of sixteen, 
about a.d. 516. Bangor in the north, and Caerleon on 
Usk in Monmouthshire, in the south, were the chief seats 
of learning. About this time St David removed the Ar- 
chiepiscopal seat from Caerleon to Menevia, now called St 
David's, in Pembrokeshire. Sampson, the pupil of Iltutus, 
became Archbishop of Dole in Brittany, and " carried 
away with him the monuments of British antiquity." St 
Patern nourished in Cardiganshire, St Petrorch in Corn- 
wall, and St Asaph succeeded Kentigern in the see of 
Elwy, about a.d. 580, which was thenceforward called 
that of " St Asaph's." 

Q. What circumstance facilitated the conversion of 
the Saxons? 

A. Ethelbert, king of Kent, having been created 
Bret-walda, or " Lord of Britain," and thus possessing 
authority to preserve peace in all the heptarchies, married 
Bertha, daughter of Charibert, king of those Franks who 
lived around Paris. It was stipulated by her father, who 
was a Christian, that she should be freely allowed to exer- 
cise the Christian worship, and to bring with her a bishop, 
named Liudhard, as her attendant, 



186 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

Q. A Pope sent missionaries into Britain. Why, and 
with what success ? 

A. Gregory the First, on becoming Pope, a.d. 590, 
executed a plan he had long meditated, from having had 
his attention called to some Anglo-Saxon slaves in the 
market at Rome. He despatched Augustine into Britain, 
with several monks, but they, becoming discouraged, sent 
Augustine back to Rome, to remonstrate on the hopeless- 
ness of the undertaking. Gregory conjured them to pro- 
ceed, and requested the French Christians to furnish them 
with interpreters. In the year 596, they landed in the 
Isle of Thanet, where Ethelbert, to guard against sorcery, 
received them in the open air, and at once gave them per- 
mission to preach. The king and a great many of his 
subjects were soon converted, and Augustine and his com- 
pany honourably settled in Canterbury. 

Q. What was Augustine's next step ? 

A. He proceeded to Aries, where, in pursuance of 
Pope Gregory's orders, he was consecrated Metropolitan of 
the English nation by Etherius, archbishop of that city, 
and made Archbishop of Canterbury, with the title of 
papa alterius orbis, and legate of the Pope in virtue of 
his office, with the privilege of being seated at the Pope's 
right foot at General Councils. 

Q. Did Gregory give Augustine any further assist- 
ance? 

A. Upon Augustine's applying to him, he sent various 
instructions, several assistants, books, and vestments, and 
desired him to appoint twelve bishops, and, as soon as pos- 
sible, another archbishop, at York. 

Q. Did Augustine hold any intercourse with the 
British Church ? 

A. In the year 601 a conference was held in Wor- 
cestershire, where, it is said, Augustine performed a miracle 
in attestation of his superiority, but, owing to the inde- 
pendent conduct of the British deputies, nothing was at 



I ] EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 187 

that time accomplished towards a union. Shortly after- 
wards a second meeting took place, at which seven British 
bishops and a numerous body of ecclesiastics attended. 
Augustine then, without deigning to rise from his chair, 
said : "I ask only three things of you ; one, that you 
should keep Easter as we do; another, that you should 
baptize according to our ritual ; a third, that you should 
join with us in preaching the word of God to the Anglo- 
Saxons." They finally returned as their answer, " We shall 
agree to no one of your propositions. Much less can we 
admit him to be our archbishop who does not even rise to 
salute us." 

Q. What further progress did Christianity make in 
the lifetime of Augustine ? 

A. Through the influence of king Ethelbert, Mellitus, 
a companion of St Augustine's, was consecrated Bishop of 
London, the capital of Sebert, king of the East Angles ; 
and Justus, who had been sent over by Gregory, was 
made Bishop of Rochester, a place situated in Ethelbert's 
kingdom. 

Q. Who succeeded Augustine in the archbishopric ? 
What difficulties had his successor to contend against ? 

A. Laurentius, a.d. 604, who again unsuccessfully 
attempted to induce the native Churches to conform to that 
of Rome. When Ethelbert and Sebert were succeeded by 
their pagan sons, Laurentius, Mellitus, and Justus, despair- 
ing of the success of their mission, agreed to leave the 
island ; but after the departure of the bishops, Laurentius, 
being reproached and personally chastised for his pusil- 
lanimity by St Peter in a vision, succeeded in converting 
Eadbald, the son and successor of Ethelbert, and recalled 
Mellitus and Justus. 

Q. Under what circumstances did the kingdom of 
Northumbria first become Christian ? 

A. It was stipulated with Edwin, king of Northum- 
bria, on his marriage with Ethelburga, or Tate, a Christian, 
sister of Eadbald, king of Kent, that he should allow Pauli- 



188 THE HISTORY OP THE [lECT. 

nus, who was then consecrated a bishop, to accompany her. 
After overcoming various difficulties, Paulinus succeeded in 
converting Edwin, and establishing himself at York, a.d. 
627. Shortly afterwards, however, Edwin was slain in 
battle, and Paulinus retired from Northumbria to Ro- 
chester. 

Q. After the departure of Paulinus from York, a.d. 
633, Christianity was again established in Northumbria. 
When and under what circumstances? 

A. Oswald, son of Ethelfrid, whom Edwin had dis- 
possessed of his kingdom, having become not only King of 
Northumbria, but also Bret-walda, or " Lord of Britain," 
sent into Scotland (where he had passed his exile and been 
converted) for missionaries, to re-establish the Christian 
faith. Aidan, a Scottish bishop, then came into Northum- 
bria, and fixed his see at Lindisferne, or Holy Island, a.d. 
635. 

Q. Who first converted the kingdom of Wessex ? 

A. Birinus, a native of Genoa, who had been sent for 
that purpose by Pope Honorius. He became Bishop of 
Dorchester, near Oxford, a.d. 635. 

Q. State briefly the circumstances under which Chris- 
tianity was introduced into the kingdom of Mercia, and re- 
established in Essex. 

A. Peada, son of Penda, king of the Mercians 
(Cheshire, &c), on marrying a Northumbrian princess, a. d. 
653, became a Christian, and received as bishop, Diuma, 
who had been consecrated by Finan the successor of Aidan. 
Three Saxon priests accompanied him, one of whom, named 
Cedda, or Chad, re-established Christianity in Essex about 
the same time. 

Q. By what means was Christianity established 
amongst the East Angles ? 

A. Redwald, king of the East Angles, embraced 
Christianity through the influence of Edwin, king of 
Northumbria, but soon afterwards apostatized. His son 
Carpwald, who succeeded him, a Christian, was slain by the 



I.] EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 189 

Pagans, and his other son (or his brother) Sigebert, fled 
into Gaul. On his return he was accompanied by Felix, 
a Burgundian bishop, for whom he founded the see of 
Dunwich, in Suffolk, a.d. 630. 

Q. Who were the successors of Aidan and King 
Oswald? 

A. Aidan was succeeded by his countrymen, Finan 
and Colman. Oswy became king after Oswald, and 
married Eanfleda, the daughter of Edwin, by his wife 
Ethelburga, the daughter of Bertha, and consented to call 
the famous Council of Whitby, a. d. 644. 

Q. When and how did the Romanists abolish the 
peculiarities of the British Churches ? 

A. Oswy, king of Northumberland, who belonged to 
the British Church, finding the inconvenience of celebrating 
Easter-day on a different day from that on which his queen, 
who adhered to the Roman calculation, kept it, consented 
to call a council at Whitby, a.d. 664, to settle that, and 
other questions, between the two Churches. Colman, 
bishop of JNorthumbria, and Chad, bishop of Essex, pleaded 
for the British, and Wilfrid for the Roman, custom. When 
Wilfrid alleged as an argument in favour of his cause, that 
Christ had entrusted the keys of heaven to St Peter, Oswy 
asked, " Were they really entrusted to him ?" " Un- 
doubtedly so," was the answer. " And can you allege the 
grant of any such privilege to an authority of yours ?" 
demanded the king. " We cannot," answered Colman. 
" I must leave your party, then," said Oswy ; " for I 
should not choose to disoblige him who keeps the key of 
heaven. It might be found impossible to get the door 
open when I seek admittance." The Romish mode of 
" tonsure" for ecclesiastics was also adopted at the same 
time. 

Q. Explain the different days on which Easter-day 
was anciently kept. Was the ancient British Church 
Quarto deciman ? 

A. Certain Asiatic Churches, previously to the Coun- 



190 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

cil of Nice, a. d. 325, used to eat a paschal lamb in com- 
memoration of the last supper, on the day of the Jewish 
Passover, or the 14th day of the first Jewish month Msan 
(which month always began on the new moon next after 
the vernal equinox). Three days after eating this lamb 
they commemorated the resurrection of our Saviour, with- 
out any reference to the day of the week on which this 
might fall. These were called Quarto decimans, or such 
as kept the paschal feast upon the 14th day after the 
(pdcris, or appearance of the moon. Whereas the other 
Churches celebrated their paschal feast on the night that 
preceded the anniversary of Christ's resurrection, which 
was held on the Sunday next after the Jewish Passover. 
The Council of Nice decreed the following Canons : 
1. " That the 21st of March should be accounted the vernal 
equinox." 2. " That the full moon happening upon or next 
after the 21st of March shall be taken for the full moon 
of Nisan." 3. " That the Sunday next following that full 
moon should be Easter-day." 4. " That if the full moon 
fell upon a Sunday, Easter-day should be the Sunday 
after." For some time after the Council of Nice, the 
Bishop of Alexandria was authorized to notify to all the 
other Churches on what day Easter-day was to be kept. 
Subsequently a cycle of 84 years was invented, and 
adopted by all Churches. Whilst, however, the British 
had no intercourse with the Roman Church, the Bishops of 
Pome altered and improved their cycle, and thus, on the 
arrival of Augustine, the two Churches celebrated Easter- 
day at different periods. The British Church kept their 
Easter-day on a Sunday, from the 14th to the 20th day 
of the paschal moon inclusive ; whereas the Roman Church 
kept it on the Sunday which fell between the 15th and 
21st. So that the British Church was not at that time 
Quarto deciman, as some have supposed. The Welsh 
Churches did not adopt the Roman calculation until a.d. 
755, when Elfod, bishop of Bangor, advised them to do so. 
Q. Who succeeded Colman? 



■] 



EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH. 



191 



A. Tuda, who was consecrated by the British divines. 
After a few months he died, and was succeeded by Wilfrid, 
who proceeded into Gaul to obtain consecration from 
Agilbert, bishop of Paris. 

Q. Give some account of St Wilfrid. 

A. After his consecration he delayed so long in 
France, that Chad, abbot of Lastingham near Whitby, was 
consecrated by Wine, bishop of Winchester, and two British 
prelates, in his place ; but Chad (when Theodore, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, declared his consecration uncanonical) 
gave way, and Wilfrid regained his see. On a proposal 
to divide his diocese, Wilfrid refusing his consent, Theo- 
dore, on being referred to, deprived him. Wilfrid then 
repaired to Rome, and returned with the Pope's order for 
his restoration. Instead of complying the Saxons im- 
prisoned him. On his release he became an active mis- 
sionary, and converted the heathen inhabitants of Sussex. 
He was at a subsequent period restored to his see, but was 
again deposed, and after a second appeal to Rome he was 
restored to a part of his see, and died Bishop of Hexham, 
a.d. 709. 

Q. What resolution did the kings of Kent and 
Northumbria take to heal the dissensions of the Church ? 

A. They jointly sent a priest to Rome to be conse- 
crated ; but he died before its accomplishment. 

Q. Give a chronological table of the times of conversion, the 
Councils, and the Archbishops of Canterbury, in the early Anglo- 
Saxon Church. 



A. CONVERSIONS. 

A D. 

Kent by Augustin 596 

Essex by Mellitus 604 

byCedda 653 

Northumbria by Paulimis 627 

by Aidan... 635 

East Anglia by Felix 631 

Wessex by Birinus ... 633 

Mercia and the Middle 

Angles by the Scots ... 653 
Sussex by Wilfrid 681 



COUNCILS. 

A. D. 

Augustin 603 

Whitbv 664 

Hertford 673 

Hatfield 680 

Ina 693 

Bapchild 694 

Berghamstead 696 

Nidd 705 

Cloveshoo ... 747 
Calcuith 787 



ARCHBISHOPS. 

A.D. 

Augustin... 597 
Laurence . . 605 
Mellitus ... 619 

Justus 624 

Honorius . . 631 
Deusdedit . 655 
Wighard... 665 
Theodore.. 668 



Tat win 



732 



192 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 



iCerture II. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH FROM THE ARRIVAL 
OF THEODORE TO THE TIME OF DUNSTAN, A.D. 669-928. 



Q. Under what circumstances did Canterbury be- 
come the head of the Anglo-Saxon Church ? 

A. The kings of the Anglo-Saxons having been 
harassed by dissensions in the Church, had sent a person 
to Rome to be canonically consecrated Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. He however died at Rome, and Pope Vitalian 
(a.d. 657 — 672) consecrated Theodore of Tarsus, a learned 
monk, a native of Cilicia, then 66 years old, in his stead, 
a.d. 668. Theodore waited in Gaul to obtain the consent 
of the Saxon kings to his appointment. This they con- 
firmed, and also granted, for the first time, to the see of 
Canterbury the primacy over their whole Church. 

Q. How was the internal economy of the Saxon 
Church regulated by Theodore ? 

A. In the year 673 he convened a Council at Hert- 
ford, which was numerously attended, where the ten follow- 
ing Canons were adopted : 1. That Easter should be kept 
on the Sunday after the full moon after the vernal equinox. 
2. That no bishop should interfere with the diocese of 
another. 3. That bishops should not disturb religious 
houses. 4. That monks should remain in their own mo- 
nasteries. 5. That the clergy shall not change their dio- 
ceses without their bishop's permission. 6. That bishops 
and clergy, who were strangers, should not exercise their 
office, without the permission of the bishop in whose diocese 
they were living. 7. That a synod should be held an- 
nually on the first of August. 8. That priority of conse- 
cration should determine the precedence of bishops. 9. 
That the number of bishops should be augmented. 10. 
That no man should be allowed to contract an incestuous 



II.] ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. 193 

or unlawful marriage, or to put away his wife except for 
fornication, and after that must remain single, or be again 
reconciled to her. 

Q. When and for what purpose was the Synod of 
Hatfield held ? What important decree was made there ? 

A. In the year 680, to condemn the Monothelites 
(see p. 143). The first five General Councils, and another, 
held a.d. 649, by Martin I. at Rome, against the same 
heresy, were solemnly received. 

Q. What means were adopted by Theodore to in- 
crease the efficiency and stability of the Church ? 

A. He caused the number of bishops to be increased, 
and encouraged the extension of the parochial system by 
investing the patronage of the new parishes in those who 
built and endowed the churches. 

Q. Mention the steps which Theodore took to en- 
courage learning. 

A. In conjunction with Adrian, a learned monk who 
had accompanied him to England, he gave lectures upon 
all the different branches of knowledge. He also founded 
a school (probably at Cricklade) in Wiltshire, and brought 
over several valuable books from Rome. As he conceived 
that every sin ought to be expiated by a peculiar penance, 
he wrote a Penitential (in which it was clearly stated 
that confession need only be made to God) for its regu- 
lation. 

Q. What religious houses were founded in Northum- 
bria under the successor of Oswy ? 

A. Ecgfrid, who succeeded King Oswy, a.d. 670, 
assisted Wilfrid in establishing a monastery at Ripon, a. d. 
672, and granted land to Benedict Biscop to found monas- 
teries at Wearmouth and Jarrow, a.d. 682. 

Q. Who was St Hilda ? What religious houses did 
she found ? 

A. She was niece of Edwin, king of Northumbria, 
and was baptized by Paulinus. She subsequently, under 
the guidance of Aidan, founded a nunnery at Hartlepool, 
9 



194 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

and afterwards built the Abbey of Whitby, at which place 
she died, a.d. 680. 

Q. What do we know of John of Beverley ? 

A. That he was brought up at the monastery of 
Whitby under St Hilda ; that he became a pupil of Theo- 
dore and Adrian ; that he held in succession the sees of 
Hexham and York ; and at length retired to Beverley, 
where he had founded a collegiate church, and died about 
A.D. 721. 

Q. What kings of JSorthumbria succeeded Ecgfrid ? 

A. Aldfrid, under whom Jolni of Beverley lived, 
and Ceolwolph, to whom Bede dedicates his Ecclesiastical 
History. He retired to a monastery, a.d. 728, as also 
did his successor Egbert, a.d. 757. 

Q. When did England become by law a Christian 
kingdom ? 

A. Under Ina, king of the West Saxons, about a.d. 
693. 

Q. Mention some of the enactments of Ina's code of eccle- 
siastical laws. 

A. 1. If a child be not baptized within a month of its birth 
the father shall forfeit thirty shillings ; and if through his neglect 
it dies unbaptized, he shall forfeit his whole estate. 2. If a slave 
do any work on a Sunday by command of his lord, the former 
shall become free, and the latter pay thirty shillings. A freeman 
working shall pay sixty shillings ; and a slave, of his own will, 
shall be whipped. 3. The Church-shot, which was a certain 
sum payable by every house according to its valuation fixed at 
Christmas, was to be paid before Martinmas, under a penalty 
of forty shillings, and twelve payments of the sum due. 4. 
Churches shall have the privilege of sanctuary; perjury com- 
mitted before a bishop shall be a serious offence ; persons breaking 
into the bishop's residence shall pay 120 shillings, the same as if 
it were the king's palace; the penalty for slaying a god-child 
shall be the same as for a son. 

Q. At what period were the Saxons most remarkable 
for their intellectual acquirements ? 

A. When Charlemagne invited Alcuin, of York, to 
reside at his court, and assist him in the management of 
ecclesiastical affairs, a.d. 782. 



II.] ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. 195 

Q. What was the origin of the eminence of the 
Saxon scholars ? 

A. When Theodore came into England, a.d. 669. as 
Archbishop of Canterbury, he was accompanied by Adrian, 
a learned monk, a native of Africa. They brought with 
them a large collection of books, and laboured incessantly 
to improve the education both of the clergy and the laity. 
Adrian became abbot of Canterbury, and continued to give 
instruction in all branches of literature until his death, in 
the year 710. Bertwald, who succeeded Theodore a.d. 
692, was his pupil, as also Tobias, the ninth bishop of 
Rochester, Alcuin, afterwards abbot of Canterbury, and 
Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne. 

Q. What appears to have been the early history of 
the see of York ? 

A. It was an important city under the Romans, and 
appears to have always been the seat of the government 
of the north of England. Paulinus fixed his see there in 
the year 627, and there is reason for supposing that pre- 
viously to that time it had been the seat of a bishop. 
After the departure of Paulinus the see remained vacant 
for thirty years. Wilfrid appears to have been appointed 
archbishop immediately after the Council of Whitby, a.d. 
664 ; but as the see of Canterbury was then vacant, and 
Colman, bishop of Lindisferne, and the advocates of the 
customs of their ancient Church, had withdrawn in dis- 
pleasure at King Oswy's determination to adhere to the 
customs of the Roman Church, Wilfrid sought consecration. 
in Gaul. During his absence St Chad (who afterwards 
became Bishop of Lichfield, and died a.d. 672,) was ap- 
pointed to the same see, and consecrated at Winchester ; 
Wilfrid then retired to Ripon, but was amicably restored 
to York by Theodore, a.d. 670. In 677 King Egfrid 
ejected him, but he was restored in 681. About this 
time, much against the wish of Wilfrid, Northumbria was 
subdivided into the dioceses of York, Ripon, Hexham, and 
Lindisferne ; York being the seat of the archbishopric. 

9—2 



196 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

. Q. Under two of its archbishops York became 
celebrated for its school. Give a brief account of them. 

A. Their names were Egbert (a.d. 732 — 766) and 
Albert (a.d. 766 — 780). Egbert (who was nearly related 
to Ceolwulf, then king of Northumbria, and brother to 
Edbert his successor,) had been ordained in early life a 
deacon at Rome, and subsequently, when appointed to the 
see of York, revisited that see to obtain the archbishop's 
pall from the hands of the Pope. After his return he 
collected a noble library, and diligently applied himself to 
the instruction of a number of pupils. < He also compiled 
several manuals of ecclesiastical discipline, and prepared a 
Penitential, in the Saxon language, for the use of his 
clergy, which works are still extant. He was succeeded by 
Albert, who had long been his able coadjutor in conducting 
the school. Albert, according to the account of his pupil 
Alcuin, trod in the steps of his predecessor. He retired into 
a monastery two years before his death, and was succeeded 
in the see by a former pupil, named Eanbald, a.d. 780. 

Q. Give a brief account of a celebrated teacher of 
the Saxon Theological School at York. 

A. Flaccus Albinus, or Alcuin, was born at York, 
about a.d. 735, and educated under Egbert and Albert, 
who were successively archbishops, and heads of the school 
which nourished there for many years. He also appears 
to have conducted the institution for some time with great 
success, and to have gone to solicit the archbishop's pall 
from the Pope, for Eanbald, on his election, a.d. 780. 
During his stay in Italy he was introduced to Charlemagne, 
who was so much struck with his superior talents and 
acquirements, that he at length induced him to leave York, 
and take up his residence at the imperial court, a.d. 782. 
From that time, until his death at Tours, a.d. 804, he 
was engaged in settling the affairs of the Frankish empire ; 
and both by his writings, and by his influence with the 
Emperor, exercised almost unlimited influence over the 
ecclesiastical and civil concerns of Europe, 



II.] ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. 197 

' Q. Under what circumstances was a third arch- 
bishopric founded in England ? 

A. Offa, king of the Mercians, a.d. 756 to 796, in 
order to humble Alric, the king of Kent, with whom he 
was at war, and Eanbert, archbishop of Canterbury, who 
zealously supported his sovereign, prevailed on Pope Adrian 
I. to send a pall to Higbert, Bishop of Lichfield, and create 
him archbishop of the six sees between the Thames and 
the Humber, but Ethelhard, the successor of Eanbert, 
with the consent of Casnwulf, the new king of Mercia, 
who had then added Kent to his dominions, and by the 
influence of Alcuin, prevailed upon Pope Leo III., on the 
death of Higbert, a.d. 800, to restore the honour of St 
Augustine's see, and to reduce Lichfield to a bishopric. 

Q. Two English councils were held in the eighth 
century. When, where, and with what results ? 

A. (l) At Cliffe's-hoe, or Cloveshoo, in Kent, a.d. 
742, or 747, by Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
under the presidency of Ethelbald, King of Mercia. Al- 
though two admonitory letters from Pope Zachary were 
read, no mention was made of an union with or subjection 
to the see of Rome ; bishops were ordered to visit their 
dioceses annually, and to be watchful of the conduct of the 
clergy and the candidates for ordination; abbots to inspect 
the morals of the clergy under then* charge ; priests to 
learn and teach the people the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, 
and to explain the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's 
Supper, in English. (2) At Calcuith, in Lancashire, a.d. 
785 or 787, at which Gregory, bishop of Ostia, and Theo- 
phylact, bishop of Todi, attended as legates of the Pope. 
The foundation of the archbishopric of Lichfield was pro- 
bably then determined on, at the request of Offa, king of 
the Mercians ; the first six General Councils were acknow- 
ledged ; and several regulations with regard to ecclesi- 
astical discipline and payments were made. 

Q, When were payments first made from England 
to the see of Rome ? What were they ? 



198 THE HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

A. When Offa, king of Mercia, visited Rome, about 
a.d. 787, to obtain the approbation of the Pope for his 
new foundation of St Alban's abbey, he settled on the 
English College at Rome a penny for every family, not 
absolutely destitute, in his kingdom. This was the origin 
of the Peter-pence of subsequent times. Some maintain 
that it was only a renewal of a previous grant of King Ina, 
and was at first paid by the king, but at a subsequent 
period the payment was imposed on the people. 

Q. Give a brief notice of an English council held at 
the beginning of the ninth century. 

A. In the year 816, a council was held at Calcuith, 
or Celychyth, under Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury, 
a.d. 803 — 832, at which Csenwulf, king of Mercia, was 
present. Eleven canons were adopted. It was decreed 
that no ecclesiastic should perform any clerical duties in 
the district of another, except in urgent cases, such as 
baptisms and visiting the sick ; that relics, if attainable, 
and the elements of the Eucharist, should be deposited in 
churches at their consecration ; that monks and nuns 
should only reside in regularly endowed residences; and 
that the Scottish clergy, on account of the uncertainty of 
their canonical ordination, should not be allowed to officiate 
in England. 

Q. Under what circumstances did Alcuin revisit 
England ? 

A. In the year 790 Charlemagne sent him to form 
an alliance with Offa, king of the Mercians. During his 
three years' sojourn, a.d. 792, Charlemagne sent over the 
decrees of the second Council of Nice, held a.d. 787, which 
had established the religious worship of images, upon which 
the English prelates declared this doctrine to be " accursed," 
and engaged Alcuin to write a treatise against it. The 
work was sent to Charlemagne, and is supposed either to 
be the Caroline Books, or the source from which they 
were derived. These books were, after the Council of 
Francfort-on-the-Maine, held a.d. 794, sent to the Pope. 



II.] ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. 199 

Q. What changes were introduced into the govern- 
ment of the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy about the 
beginning of the ninth century ? What fresh difficulties 
occurred ? 

A. Egbert, King of Wessex, (a.d. 802—838) about 
825 rendered the title of "Lord of Britain" hereditary in 
his family, and reduced the other princes to the condition 
of governors, with the titles of earls. The Danes, who 
as early as 787 had attacked the sea-coast, and in 793, 
and subsequent years, plundered Lindisferne, Wearmouth, 
and other monasteries, gained a victory over Egbert, a.d. 
833, at Charmouth, in Dorsetshire, and continued to ravage 
the country during the reigns of his successors, Ethelwolf, 
a.d. 838 — 856, and his sons. About the year 875, the 
monasteries of Beverley, Whitby, Ripon, Hexham, Lindis- 
ferne, Lastingham, and others, were plundered, and their 
inmates destroyed or dispersed. 

Q. State briefly the nature of certain regulations 
relating to the Churches of England and Rome, which were 
made by an English king about the middle of the ninth 
century. 

A. Ethelwolf, king of England a.d. 838 — 856, who 
had been a pupil of St Swithin, about a.d. 854, is sup- 
posed to have confirmed, by a charter, the previous grants 
of tithes, and to have discharged them from the paymeut 
of lay-fees : he also enforced the payment of the Kirk- 
shot, or Church-rate, of a Saxon penny for every house 
whose annual rent exceeded thirty-pence. Neither of 
these payments were new, but the mode of their exaction 
and collection was made more definite and uniform. During 
a visit to Rome, a.d. 854 — 855, he is also supposed to 
have confirmed his predecessor's grant of Peter-pence, and 
settled, in addition, a yearly payment of 300 marks ; 
one-third for buying candles for the church of St Peter's, 
one-third for candles for St Paul's, churches at Rome ; 
and one-third for the use of the Pope. He also rebuilt the 
English school at Rome. 



200 THE HISTORY OF THE j 



LECT. 



Q. Give a description of a Danish irruption into the mid- 
land counties. 

A. "Anno 870, the Danes made an inrode into Lincoln- 
shire, where they met with stout resistance. The Christians had 
the better the first day, wherein the Danes lost three of their 
kings, buried in a place thence called Trekingham ; so had they 
the second day, till at night breaking their ranks to pursue the 
Danes in their dissembled flight, they were utterly overthrown. 

" Theodore, abbot of Crowland, hearing of the Danes' approach, 
shipped away most of his monks, with the choycest relicks and 
treasures of his convent, and cast his most precious vessels into 
a well in the cloister. The rest remaining were at their morn- 
ing praiers, when the Danes entring slew ; Theodore, the abbot, 
on the high altar ; Asher, the prior, in 4he vestiary ; Lethwin 
the sub-prior, in the refectory ; Pauline and Herbert in the 
quire ; Wobride, the torch-bearer, in the same place ; Grim- 
ketule and Agamund, each of them 100 years old, in the cloisters. 

" Then the Danes marched to Medamstead (since called Peter- 
borough), where finding the abby-gates locked against them, 
they resolved to force their entrance, in effecting whereof Tulba, 
brother to Count Hubba, was wounded almost to death with a 
stone cast at him. Hubba, enraged hereat, killed Abbot Hedda, 
and all the monks, being fourscore and four, with his own hand. 
Then was the abby set on fire, which burnt fifteen daies to- 
gether, wherein an excellent library was consumed. Having 
pillaged the abby, and broke the tombs and coffins of many 
saints there interred, these Pagans marched forward into Cam- 
bridge-shire, and passing the river Nine, two of their waggons 
fell into the water, wherein the cattle that drew them were 
drowned, much of their rich plunder lost, and more impared. 

" The Danes spared no age, sex, condition of people. They 
wasted Cambridge, burnt the (then) city of Thetford, forced 
Edmond, king of the East- Angles, into his castle of Framling- 
ham. They took him, and because he would not deny Christ, 
they tyed him unto a tree, and shot at him till he died. _ They 
then cut off his head, and cast it among the bushes. His own 
subjects buried him, both head and body, at Hatesdon, which 
from thence was called St Edmonds-bury. There after-ages 
shrined, sainted, and adored his reliques. King Ethelbert be- 
haved himself bravely in nine battles with various success against 
the Danes, and the more he slew, the more they grew, which 
went near his heart, therefore he withered away in the flower 
of his age, desiring rather to encounter death than the Danes, 
according to the observation of the English historian, (Guliel. 
Malmbur. de Gestis Begum Anglor. lib. 2), that the Saxon kings, 
in this age, Magis optabant honestum exitum, quam acerbum 
Imperum." 



11.] ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. 201 

Q. Mention some particulars with regard to King 
Alfred. 

A. He was a younger son of King Ethelwolf, born 
a.d. 849, and accompanied his father to Home when about 
seven years old ; at the age of twelve he learnt to read, 
and when about twenty years old he learnt Latin, He 
became king a.d. 871, and in 878 retired to Athelney, 
near Glastonbury, to avoid the Danes. After a short 
time he conquered the Danes, and restored the ruined 
affairs of his kingdom. He died a.d. 901, aged 52. 

Q. What steps were taken by Alfred to restore 
learning ? 

A. He restored the University of Oxford, which is 
said to have been founded by Theodore, or, according to 
Asser, the friend and biographer of Alfred, which had 
been a school in the times of the Britons. He himself 
was a diligent scholar, and with Werferth, * bishop of 
Worcester, and Asser, who afterwards became bishop of 
Sherborne, he translated large portions of the Scriptures, 
Bede's Ecclesiastical History, St Gregory's Manual, and 
the Consolations of Boethius, into the language of the 
country. He also founded a new monastery at Athelney, 
and restored many of the older foundations. 

Q. What ecclesiastical regulations were passed by 
Alfred ? 

A. The right of sanctuary was recognised, and he 
caused the Danes to pay Rome -shot, light-shot, and 
plough-shot. The decrees of the second Council of Nice 
authorizing images were also received. In reciting the 
commandments he omitted the second, and made the tenth 
consist of the words: "Make not to thyself gods of gold 
or of silver," but he was opposed to the supremacy of 
Rome, and the doctrine of transubstantiation. 

Q. Who succeeded Alfred ? 

A. (l) His son Edward the Elder, who reformed 
some ecclesiastical abuses. (2) Athelstan, a.d. 925, who 
at the Council of Gratelv, a.d. 928, enacted that tithes 

9—5 



202 



THE HISTORY OF THE 



[lect. 



should be strictly paid, not only upon crops, but also upon 
live stock. The payment of Church-shot was also con- 
firmed. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to John Scotus, 

A. John Scotus Erigena, or John the Irish-born Scot, 
was educated in France, and so highly esteemed by Charles 
the Bald, that he joined him with Ratramn to confute the 
doctrine of Paschasius Radbertus on the Eucharist ; but, 
having given that monarch some offence, he accepted Al- 
fred's invitation to teach in England. He is said to have 
been murdered by his pupils. v 

Q. What were the tenets of Paschasius ? 

A. He endeavoured to explain with precision the 
manner of Christ's presence in the Eucharist. 

Q. At what period were regular monasteries intro- 
duced into England? 

A. From the time of Athelstan to the Conquest. 

Q. What religious foundations previously existed ? 

A, Conventual foundations; but they were a kind 
of colleges, in which ordinary clergymen superintended 
the education of the youth, and a refuge was provided for 
a few ascetics. 

Q. Mention the origin of the name Minister ? 

A. It is the popular name of a monasterium ; it com- 
prised a church furnished with clergymen, who served it, 
and made excursions into the neighbouring places. 



Note : — Kings of 

A. D. 

Egbert succeeds 827 

dies 836 

Ethelwolf dies . 857 

Ethelbald 860 

Ethelbert 866 

Ethelredl 871 

Alfred 901 

Edward 925 



England from Egbert 

A.D. 

Athelstan..... 941 

Edmund I. ... 946 

Edred 955 

Edwy 957 

Edgar ........ 975 

Edward 978 

Ethelred II. 

deposed ... 1013 



to the Conquest. 

A.D. 

Sweno died ... 1014 
Ethelred II.... 1016 
Edmund II.... 1017 

Canute 1036 

Harold 1 1039 

Hardiknute... 1041 
Edw.III.Conf.1066 
Harold II. ...1066 



land? 



Who was the second Benedictine abbot in Eng- 



II.] ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. 203 

A. Ethelwolf of Abingdon, surnamed the father of 
the monks, on account of the austerity of his discipline. 
He introduced and perfected the mode of chanting and 
singing the Church-service. 

Q. Was Dunstan uniformly successful in his en- 
deavours to establish the monastic system? What was 
his subsequent fate ? 

A. No: King Edwy, a.d. 955, banished him, and 
dissolved all the monasteries. Dunstan then retired into 
Flanders, but Edgar, who had obtained part of Edwy's 
kingdom, made him first Bishop of Worcester, a.d. 957, 
then Bishop of London, a.d. 958, and finally, on the death 
of Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, promoted him to the 
primacy a.d. 959, where he continued until his death in 
the year 988. 

Q. Give some account of Odo, the predecessor of 
Dunstan at Canterbury. 

A. He was born of heathen Danish parents, who 
had settled in East Anglia in the time of Alfred, but 
received a Christian education, and became successively 
Bishop of Sherborne, and Archbishop of Canterbury, a.d. 
938 — 958. He established ten canons, and published a 
synodical epistle. They establish the immunity of Church- 
property from taxation ; they exhort kings, bishops, and 
ecclesiastics, to lead godly lives ; they forbid incestuous 
marriages ; and, in recommending unity, he adds, " let 
the Church be one, united in faith, hope, and charity, 
having one head, which is Christ, whose members ought 
to help each other, and love each other with mutual 
charity, as he has said, By this shall all men know that 
ye are my disciples." (See Churton, p. 241). 

Q. What steps did Dunstan take to favour the 
monks ? 

A. In conjunction with Oswald, archbishop of York, 
and Ethelwold, bishop of Winchester, who had been 
brought up as monks, he began to oblige the married 
clergy and canons not only to put away their wives, but 



204 THE HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH. [LECT. 

to turn out the canons from many of the chief cathedrals, 
and to place monks in their stead. 

Q. What opposition did he meet with? 

A. The ejected or threatened canons, backed by 
powerful friends, appealed to their original foundation, 
and alleged that although some reformation might be 
needed, yet that it was unreasonable that the whole 
body should be deprived for the delinquency of a few. 
A legislative assembly was held in 968, but by some 
means Dunstan triumphed. At a subsequent assembly, 
held at Calne, the party of the canons was again de- 
feated. 

Q. What two miracles are said to have been wrought 
in favour of the monastic party ? 

A. (l) At a meeting of the National Council at 
Winchester, about a.d. 968, which was attended by King 
Edgar and Dunstan, to settle the dispute between the 
secular and regular clergy, a decision was on the point 
of being delivered in favour of the secular canons, when 
a voice was heard to issue from a crucifix in the wall, 
uttering twice the following words : " God forbid it to be 
done." Upon this the monks are said to have gained their 
object, and the canons were expelled from the cathedrals. 
(2) After the death of King Edgar a similar meeting 
was held at Calne, in Somersetshire, where the monks 
were delivered from a like difficulty by the floor of the 
place of assembly giving way, and overwhelming the party 
of the seculars, whilst Dunstan and his friends were un- 
injured. 



III.] THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH, &C. 205 



£wture ni. 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND ITS DOCTRINES 
FROM DUNSTAN TO THE CONQUEST, A. D. 928—1066. 



Q. A dissension arose in the Church in the time 
of Dunstan. Mention some particulars of it. 

A. Before the time of Dunstan the monastic system 
had not made much progress in England. The secular 
clergy were a very numerous and influential body, and 
after the regulars had been driven from their houses, or 
slain by the Danes, many of the monasteries, and most 
of the cathedrals, were in the hands of the former, who 
resided in their precincts in company with their wives 
and families, and performed the daily services. Dunstan 
determined to change a system which was so contrary 
to the notions he had imbibed in his early years; and 
thus originated a contest between the secular and regular 
clergy, which was continued with great bitterness from 
his time to the Reformation. 

Q. Give a short sketch of the early life of Dunstan. 

A. He was born a.d. 925, near Glastonbury, and 
sent at an early age to receive his education at the 
monastery of Fleury, near Rouen, in France. At the 
early age of one-and-twenty he became one of the chap- 
lains of King Edmund, and with the royal permission 
undertook the restoration of the monastery of Glaston- 
bury, where he had spent some of his early years. It 
was not until the year 954 that he completed this esta- 
blishment, and thus became the first Benedictine abbot in 
England. 

Q. Mention an instance in which Dunstan refused to 
submit to a papal mandate. 

A. A powerful earl having contracted a marriage 
within the prohibited degrees of kindred being excom- 



206 THE HISTORY OP THE ExNGLISH CHURCH [LECT. 

municated by Dunstan, obtained from the reigning Pope 
an order commanding him to grant him absolution. " God 
forbid," answered Dunstan, " that I for the sake of any 
man, or to save my own life, should set aside the law 
which Christ has ordered to be kept in his Church. When 
I shall see that he has repented of his crime, I will then 
obey the commands of the Pope. But that he should per- 
sist in his sin, and insult me, and rejoice at being free from 
ecclesiastical discipline, is contrary to the will of God." 

Q. Give a brief account of the Ecclesiastical Regula- 
tions issued by King Edgar in the time of Dunstan. 

A. " The clergy were to preach every Sunday, and 
pray that the people should be faithful to their prince ; a 
synod was to judge of any injury received by a priest ; 
every priest was to learn a useful trade ; parents were to 
bring their children for baptism before they were six 
weeks old ; and none, except those who could say the 
Lord's Prayer and the Creed were to be admitted to the 
Eucharist, or receive Christian burial, &c." 

Q. State some particulars with regard to an eminent 
English prelate and his works who lived in the 10th cen- 
tury. 

A. Elfric, after receiving the rudiments of learning, 
finished his education at the celebrated school founded by 
Ethelwold, at Winchester. He first became abbot of 
Cerne, in Dorsetshire, about a.d. 987, and was successively 
Abbot of St Alban's, Bishop of Wilton, and Archbishop 
of Canterbury, a.d. 994 — -1005. Having compiled, in 
English, two volumes of forty homilies each, from the 
works of Austin, Jerom, Bede, Gregory, and others, he 
submitted them for his approval to Sigeric, the primate., 
from whom they met with unqualified approval, and sooi] 
came into general use. He also translated the Pentateuch 
for the use of the people, and compiled a grammar and 
dictionary of the old English language. 

Q. What Ecclesiastical Laws were passed in the time 
of Edward the Confessor, a.d. 1042—1066 ? 



III.] AND ITS DOCTRINES. 20? 

A. (l) That every clerk and scholar should quietly 
enjoy his goods and possessions. (2) That on certain 
solemn festivals people might come and go without any 
law-suits to disturb them. (3) That in all courts when 
the bishop's proctor appeared, his case was first to be 
heard and determined. (4) That guilty persons flying to 
the church should there have protection, not to be re- 
proved by any but the bishop and his ministers. (5) 
That tithes should be paid to the Church of sheep, pigs, 
bees, and the like. (6) That the ordeal by fire and water 
should be under certain regulations. (7) That Peter- 
pence should be faithfully paid to the Pope. 

Q. Explain the meaning of the " Trinoda Necessitas." 
A. Ecclesiastical property, although exempt from 
many payments, was yet liable to assessments : (l) for 
the repair of bridges and highways ; (2) for the main- 
tenance of fortifications ; (3) for providing the means of 
repelling hostile incursions. These constituted the Trinoda 
Necessitas, to which all landed property was also liable. 

Q. Shew that the Scriptures were not forbidden to 
the people in the early English Church. 

A. Bede (E. H. in. 5) relates that such as were in 
company with Aidan, whether clergy or laity, were com- 
pelled to exercise themselves in reading the Holy Word. 
Bede, Alfred, and Elfric, translated portions of Scripture 
into the vernacular language ; but it does not appear that 
any complete version of the whole Bible then existed. 

Q. What is the history of Transubstantiation ? Was 
it a tenet of the English Church before the Conquest ? 

A. "In the year 787 the second Council of Nice 
began with a rash determination that the sacred symbols 
are not figures or images at all, but the very body and 
blood. About 831 Paschasius Radbertus carried it further, 
even to transubstantiation, or somewhat very like it. The 
name of transubstantiation is supposed to have come in 
about a.d. 1100, first mentioned by Hildebertus Cenoma- 
nensis of that time. In the year 1215 the doctrine was 



208 THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

made an article of faith by the Lateran Council, under 
Innocent III." ( Waterland.) The Romanists appeal to 
the works of Bede, Egfrid, and some English canons, as 
containing words which a Protestant would not use, but 
these also contain expressions which Romanists would not 
allow, which proves that the writers were unacquainted 
with the doctrine. A canon, supposed to be of the age 
of Theodore (a.d. 668 — 689), speaks of the body of 
Christ as being present, not substantially, but spiritually, 
in the eucharistical elements ; the Council of Celychyth, 
a.d. 816, speaks of the elements as inferior in sanctity to 
relics ; and Elfric, in his homilies, written about 987, which 
were specially approved of by the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury and many bishops, says, " Housel is Christ's body, 
not corporally, but spiritually ; not the body in winch he 
suffered, but that body of which he spake, when he blessed 
bread and wine for housel, one night before his passion, 
and said of the bread blessed, This is my body ; and again 
of the wine blessed, This is my blood, that is shed for 
many for the forgiveness of sins." 

Q. Were solitary masses in use in the early English 
Church ? 

A. " Bede and Alcuin appear to have esteemed the 
sacrifice beneficial for the living ; Bede, even for the dead. 
The same opinion is expressed by Elfric in his sermons ; 
and in the canons of Edgar, 960, the practice of saying 
mass, as an opus ojieratum, seems clearly to have been 
established." Short, p. 19. 

Q. What appears to have been the practice of the 
English Church before the Conquest as to the use of images, 
relics, and pilgrimages? 

A. (1) Image-worship was rejected by Alcuin and 
the English Church previously to the Council of Frankfort, 
a. d. 794 ; but as Alfred omitted the second commandment, 
and made "Work thou not golden gods, or silveren," to be 
the tenth, we may presume that image-worship was then 
in use. (2) Relics were held in great esteem, and pil- 



III. J AND ITS DOCTRINES. 209 

grimages to Rome were so common, that Boniface, in 747, 
writes to Cuthbert, that English women who had set out 
for this purpose, were to be found living by prostitution in 
every town on the road. 

Q. Did the early English Church believe in pur- 
gatory and the efficacy of prayers for the dead? 

A. Prayers and eucharistic offerings for the dead 
were probably of early origin in Britain, and there are 
early traces of a species of purgatory. Alcuin and others 
considered that the conflagration at the end of the world 
would act as a purgatorial fire, as those only who escaped 
unscathed would attain to the abodes of the blessed. 
Alfred and his contemporaries appear to have imagined 
that the souls of the perfect went straight to heaven; 
those next in order to paradise ; the wicked who died 
penitently to the purgatorial flames ; and the impenitent 
to hell. All of which views are very different from those 
of the modern Romanists. 

Q. Recapitulate some of the arguments adduced in 
the previous history to shew that the early English Church 
was originally (l) a part of the Catholic Church ; (2) that 
it existed before the arrival of St Augustine ; (3) that 
Christianity does not appear to have come from Rome to 
England. 

A. (l) It appears (p. 179) that the British Church 
was derived from the Apostles, and, in the subsequent 
pages, it is shewn that an unbroken succession of bishops 
and pastors was always maintained. (2) It is evident 
(p. 185) that St Augustine only began the conversion of 
the Saxons ; a duty which the hostility of the two nations 
had hitherto precluded the British bishops from perform- 
ing, but that, as in the case of Aidan, the Scottish bishops 
eagerly availed themselves of any invitation to convert 
their more southern neighbours ; that Bertha, a British 
queen, and doubtless other Christians, were then at Can- 
terbury; and that Liudhard, a Gallic bishop, in the quality 
of spiritual adviser of the queen, must ha,ve produced some 



210 THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

effect on the Saxons favourable to Christianity. (3) The 
very word Church is of Greek origin ; the very first dis- 
cussion between Augustine and the British bishops turned 
upon the question of Easter (pp. 187, 190), and upon bap- 
tism ; from which it is evident that the British Church, both 
at its origin, and in its subsequent polity, had followed the 
customs of the Catholic Church, as defined at the councils 
of the fourth century. In fact, when Gregory met with 
the slaves in the market, he seemed to be totally ignorant 
of the state of the British isles, and certainly of the fact, 
that an archbishop and seven bishops existed in Wales 
alone. 

Q. Bingham says that all Metropolitans were avro- 
K€<pa\oi. Explain this. 

A. It was a name appropriated to certain absolute 
and independent bishops, and given to several of them for 
different reasons. " For first, before the setting up of 
patriarchs, all metropolitans were called avroK€(pa\oi. or- 
dering the affairs of their own province with their pro- 
vincial bishops, and being accountable to no superior but a 
synod, and that in case of heresy, or some great crime 
committed against religion or the rules of the Church." 

Q. Shew that some metropolitans were independent 
after the setting up of patriarchal power. 

A. When the Patriarch of Antioch laid claim to the 
ordination of the bishops of the island of Cyprus, in the 
Council of Ephesus, a. d. 431, the council, upon hearing 
the case, " determined against him, making a decree, that 
whereas it never had been the custom for the Bishop of 
Antioch to ordain bishops in Cyprus, the Cyprian bishops 
should retain their rights inviolable, and, according to canon 
and ancient custom, ordain bishops among themselves. And 
this was again repeated and confirmed by the Council of 
Trullo, a.d. 692, even after the Cyprists were driven out 
of their country by the incursions of the barbarians.... And 
this was also the ancient liberty of the Britannic Church, 
before the coming of Austin the monk, a.d. 595, when 



III.] AND ITS DOCTRINES. 211 

the seven British bishops, which were all that were then 
remaining, paid obedience to the Archbishop of Caer-leon, 
and acknowledged no superior in spirituals above him. 
As Dinothus, the learned abbot of Bangor, told Austin, 
a.d. 603, in the name of all the Britannic Churches, that 
they owed no other obedience to the Pope of Rome than 
they did to every godly Christian, to love every one in 
his degree in perfect charity ; other obedience than this 
they knew none due to him he named Pope, &c. But 
they were under the government of the Bishop of Caer- 
leon, or Usk, who was their overseer under God." {Bing- 
ham, ii. 18 ; see also Book ix. ; and BramhaWs Works, 
Vol. ii., where the question of the independence of the 
British Churches is fully discussed.) 

Q. Mention some particulars which shew that the 
Popes obtained no peculiar rights over the Church in 
England by the mission of St Augustin. 

A. (l) As it has been already shewn that the con- 
version of Britain by the Roman missionaries was little 
more than nominal, until the native bishops took it in 
hand; (2) as the Jus Cyprium (cf. last question) de- 
clared that "no bishop shall occupy another province which 
has not been subject to him from the beginning ; and if he 
shall have made any such occupation or seizure, let him 
make restitution, lest the canons of the Holy Fathers be 
transgressed ;" (3) as St Augustin only advanced from 
the Isle of Thanet by permission of Ethelbert, and was 
also assisted by the same king in founding the bishoprics 
of Canterbury, London, and Rochester ; (4) as no council 
convened with the consent of the sovereigns of England 
ever conferred patriarchal power in Britain upon the Pope, 
it follows that any exercise of such a power by the Pope 
is indefensible. 

Q. (l) Had Pope Gregory, when he sent Augustin 
to Britain, any sinister views ? (2) What is the story of 
St Augustin's slaughtering the monks of Bangor ? 

A. (l) It appears to be very probable that Gregory 



212 THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH, &C. [lECT. 

at first scarcely knew of the existence of the Church, or 
even the government of the Britons ; that he considered 
the islands to be inhabited by Pagan Saxons, and that his 
only object was to confer a benefit upon them by em- 
bracing a favourable opportunity of imparting to them the 
blessings of Christianity. (2) It is alleged, that out of 
revenge towards the British Christians for not admitting 
him to be their metropolitan, St Augustin caused two 
thousand monks of Bangor to be slain, whereas the 
slaughter was made after his death by a Pagan Saxon 
king, in a battle with the British, v when the monks ap- 
peared on a neighbouring eminence to aid their country- 
men by their prayers. 



IV 



■] 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH, &C. 



213 



%tttuvt IV. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE 
PREACHING OF WICKLIFFE, A.D. 1066—1356. 



t Q. Give a chronological table of the Kings of 
England and Archbishops of Canterbury during this 
period. 



A. 



KINGS. 



William I. d. 1087 
William II. . 1100 
Henry I. ... 1135 

Stephen 1154 

Henry II. ... 1189 
Richard I.... 1199 

John 1216 

Henry III... 1272 
Edward I.... 1307 
Edward II. . 1327 
Edward III. 1377 



ARCHBISHOPS. 

A. D. 



Lanfranc, d. 

Anselm 

Rodulph 

Corbel, W.... 
Theobald ... 
Becket, T. ... 

Richard 

Baldwin 

Fitz-Joceline. 

HubertWalter 

Langton,Step. 



1089 
1109 
1122 
1136 
1161 
1170 
1183 
1190 
1191 
1205 
1228 



Wethershecl, d, 
Edmund, St. 

Boniface 

Kilwarby, R. 
Peckham, J. 
Winchelsey . 
Raynold,Wal. 
Mepham, Sim. 
Stratford, J. . 
Bradwardine 
Islip, Simon . 



1231 
1242 

1270 

1278 
1292 
1313 
1327 
1333 
1348 
1349 
1366 



Q. In what relation did the Conqueror stand to the 
Pope? 

A. (l) On account of the temporal pretensions of 
Gregory VII. and the conflicting claims of two rival pon- 
tiffs, Gregory and Guibert, William forbad the reception 
of any papal constitution until it had been inspected and 
approved by him. (2) That no national synod called by 
the Archbishop of Canterbury should have any force unless 
he allowed it. (3) That no baron or officer of the king's 
courts should be excommunicated, or endure public penance, 
without the King's consent. (4) William retained the 
right of investiture ; taxed ecclesiastical property ; forbad 
the clergy from attending foreign councils without his per- 
mission ; rejected the Pope's demand of homage ; and paid 
Peter-pence only as a donation. 

Q. How did William I. treat the clergy ? 

A. He deprived them of many estates, and those 



214 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [LECT. 

that remained were subjected to feudal services. He pro- 
hibited them from leaving the kingdom, acknowledging the 
Pope's power, publishing his letters, attending general 
councils, or pronouncing excommunication against his offi- 
cers or barons without obtaining his sanction. Bishops 
and abbots were compelled to attend parliaments, He, 
however, commanded the barons to restore such church- 
lands as they had seized, and confirmed the right of the 
ecclesiastics to small as well as large tithes. 

Q. Under what circumstances was a Pope's legate 
first received in England ? „ 

A. The Conqueror wishing to deprive Stigand, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, on the plea that he was appointed in 
the lifetime of his predecessor, and that Benedict X., who 
gave him the pall, was never really Pope, sent to Pope 
Alexander II. and desired him to depute a legate to act 
with his authority ; the Pope complied, and Stigand was 
deposed. 

Q. How were the native clergy treated by the Nor- 
mans? 

A. For nearly one hundred years after the Conquest 
no Saxon was promoted to any dignity. Foreigners un- 
acquainted with the language were preferred ; the Creed, 
the Lord's Prayer, and Psalms, were no longer generally 
used in the language, the service being performed in Latin. 
In fact, the Norman bishops were military chiefs, barons, 
and ministers of state. 

Q. The service-book was changed. When ? 

A. Violent efforts were made by the Normans to 
substitute a modern service-book for the old order of 
Gregory. At a subsequent period, Osmund, bishop of 
Salisbury, 1078 — 1099, compiled the Salisbury missal or 
manual in the Latin language, and this was generally used 
up to the time of the Reformation. 

Q. What change was introduced in the Ecclesiastical 
Courts and subdivisions by William I. ? 

A. The Civil and Ecclesiastical Courts were separated; 



IV.] THE CONQUEST TO THE PREACHING OF WICKLIFFE. 215 

the dioceses were divided into archdeaconries, generally 
commensurate with the counties, and rural deaneries with 
the hundreds ; but these divisions and names were not un- 
known to the Saxons. 

Q. What was the state of the Church under Rufus? 
A . Di 1087—1100. 

A. He put the clergy of some cathedrals upon a 
bare allowance for their maintenance. He kept the see of 
Canterbury and other preferments vacant, and appropriated 
their revenues to his own use, until in a sickness, in 1093, 
he made Anselm archbishop of Canterbury, restored the 
church-lands, and as to the arrears, he evasively said, 
" de his et aliis, credam tibi, sicut debebo." Next year he 
disgraced Anselm for proposing that all church -offices 
should be filled up. Anselm also wished to go to Rome 
to receive the pall from Urban II., and thus commit the 
King to acknowledging him instead of his competitor, Cle- 
ment. On this account the King would have deposed 
him, but as he was a favourite with the nobility and 
people, and the bishops were reluctant to act, the matter 
was deferred. In the year 1095, William agreed to ac- 
knowledge Urban as Pope, provided he would depose 
Anselm. Upon this understanding a legate was despatched 
to England, who after first receiving the King's acknow- 
ledgement of the Pope, confirmed Anselm in the arch- 
bishopric. Anselm immediately withdrew from the king- 
dom, and was never again restored. 

Q. In what did the real importance of the question 
of investitures consist ? 

A. The person who had the power of investiture 
had in fact a sort of power of annulling the election, and 
therefore could effectually interfere in the nomination. 
Gregory VII. allowed the bishop elect to do homage for 
the temporalities, but interdicted princes from bestowing 
the spiritualities by delivering the staff and ring ; whereas 
Pope Urban forbad him even to do homage. (See p. 166 — 
168). 



216 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [LECT. 

Q. State the nature and result of the contest be- 
tween Pope Urban II. and Henry I. 

A. At the beginning of his reign he recalled Anselm; 
but as the archbishop, at a council held at London, a.d. 
1103, deprived several abbots for having gained their 
position in an irregular manner, and also refused to con- 
secrate the bishops whom the king had nominated, it was 
agreed that Anselm should go to Rome, a.d. 1105, and 
obtain the pope's opinion on the subject. Henry, as soon 
as he heard that the decision was against him, seized upon 
and kept the temporalities of Canterbury for nearly a year 
and a half, whilst Anselm remained at Lyons, and refused 
to submit. At length it was agreed that the king should 
give up the right of investiture, but that the new bishop 
should do homage for the temporalities of his see. 

Q. What steps were taken by Anselm to enforce the 
celibacy of the clergy ? 

A. In the year 1103 he held a council at West- 
minster, which decided against their being married, and 
again in 1108 the same canon was repeated; but a letter 
from the pope to Anselm, written a. d. 1107, which allowed 
him to ordain and promote the sons of the clergy, "be- 
cause the greatest and best part of the clergy in England 
consisted of such persons," is a proof that it was no easy 
matter to enforce obedience to this arbitrary rule. 

Q. Under what circumstances was the Welsh Church 
made dependent upon Canterbury ? 

A. Bernard, the first Norman who became Bishop 
of St David's, a.d. 1115, denied all subjection to the see 
of Canterbury, but the archbishop, with the assistance of 
the Pope, forced him to submit. 

Q. Who was the first Bishop of Ely ? What was 
the extent of the see ? 

A. The county of Cambridge was taken from the 
see of Lincoln, and assigned to the new bishopric of Ely, 
which was created a.d. 1109; Hervey, late bishop Bangor, 
being the first who held it. 



IV.] THE CONQUEST TO THE PREACHING OF WICKLIFFE. 217 

Q. What was the state of ecclesiastical affairs in 
England under Stephen ? 

A. At first, to obtain the support of the clergy, he 
promised, at Oxford, a.d. 1136, to remedy all abuses; but 
on his breaking his word, a violent contest ensued, during 
which his brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, who had 
been created legate of the Pope in England, deposed him 
a.d. 1139. Stephen, to depress his brother Henry's power, 
consented to Theobald, abbot of Bee in Normandy, being 
appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, although elected 
contrary to his prerogative. Theobald also obtained the 
legatine commission as a perpetuity for himself and suc- 
cessors. 

Q. Give a short account of Thomas a Becket. 

A. He was born in London, and educated at Oxford, 
Paris, and Bologna : he became Chancellor of England 
a.d. 1158, and Archbishop of Canterbury a.d. 1162. He 
swore to obey the Constitutions of Clarendon early in 1164; 
but retracted his consent by a papal dispensation. Being 
persecuted in the October of the same year at Northamp- 
ton, he withdrew into France, where for six years he 
withstood the king. In the year 1170 a reconciliation 
took place, and he returned on the 30th of September 
to England ; but fresh disputes arose, and certain adherents 
of the king, who was in Normandy, came over in con- 
sequence of hearing his complaints, and murdered Becket, 
who was afterwards canonized, on the 29th of December 
of the same year. 

Q. What were the Constitutions of Clarendon ? when 
enacted ? 

A. In January 1164, the king assembled the two 
archbishops, twelve bishops, and forty-two barons at Cla- 
rendon, near Salisbury, where they enacted, "that eccle- 
siastics and their retainers should be under the civil 
authority ; that the jurisdiction of the spiritual courts 
should be curtailed ; that no appeals should be made to, 
nor interdicts and excommunications received from, Borne 
10 



2 1 8 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [LECT. 

without the king's consent ; that the revenues of vacant 
preferments should belong to the king." 

Q. How did Henry act after the murder of Becket? 

A. He disavowed the act, of which he was really 
innocent, and to avoid excommunication permitted appeals 
to be made to Rome, restored the temporalities of the see 
of Canterbury, bestowed large gifts on the Church, and 
underwent flagellation at Canterbury as a penance. 

Q. When and under what circumstances did the first 
persecution for heresy take place in England ? 

A. At Oxford, in the year 1160, about thirty Ger- 
mans were maimed, branded on the forehead, and turned 
into the fields to perish. They are said to have rejected 
the sacraments, to have been averse to marriage, and 
gloried in their sufferings. 

Q. What other regulations affecting the Church took 
place in the reign of Henry II. ? 

A. In the year 1174, after many disputes, a new 
archbishop was consecrated at Rome ; in 1175 some regu- 
lations with regard to the clergy were made ; in 1176 
the Archbishop of Canterbury was declared to be superior 
to the Archbishop of York ; and at length Henry vir- 
tually abrogated the Clarendon Constitutions. 

Q. Did Richard I. advance the papal power ? 

A. Richard being engaged in foreign wars, few 
events of importance in Church History occurred ; but, as 
the Pope and the Church conferred great advantages on 
him, their power was allowed to increase, and all important 
causes were decided at Rome, according to the Pope's 
pleasure. 

Q. When did the Popes first levy contributions in 
England without the consent of its sovereign ? 

A. In the year 1199 Innocent III. issued a bull 
imposing a tax of one-fortieth of ecclesiastical incomes to 
carry on the fourth crusade, undertaken in 1202. 

Q. When did the papal power arrive at its greatest 
height in England ? 



IV.J THE CONQUEST TO THE PREACHING OF WICKLIFFE. 219 

A. In the reign of King John, a.d. 1199 — 1216. 

Q. How did the Pope interfere in the appointment 
of the primate in the reign of King John ? 

A. On the death of Hubert, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, a.d. 1205, the monks privately elected Keginald, 
and sent him to Rome for his investiture ; but as, through 
his betraying the secret, they were punished for this act 
by the king, they in revenge nominated another primate. 
The suffragan bishops, who had always claimed the power 
of electing their archbishops, also elected an archbishop. 
The whole question was then referred to the Pope, who 
set aside all the elections, and compelled the deputies of 
the Canterbury monks to elect Cardinal Langton. When 
John refused to acknowledge Langton, the Pope laid the 
country under an interdict, whilst the king in return seized 
on the revenues of those bishops that adhered to the Pope. 

Q. In what manner was the dispute between King 
John and the Pope carried on, and with what result ? 

A. In the year 1212 the Pope freed his subjects 
from their oath of allegiance, and in 1213 he bestowed 
the crown on Philip of France ; but on John's surrendering 
his kingdom, on the 15th of May, 1213, to the Pope, and 
consenting to receive the crown back again from his legate 
Pandulf, and to pay an annual tribute of 1000 marks, the 
whole power of Pome was exerted to assist him against 
Philip, and all his enemies in England, both lay and 
clerical, so much so, that in 1215 Langton was excom- 
municated for joining the barons in demanding the Magna 
Charta. 

Q. What concessions were made to the ecclesiastics 
in the charter ? 

A. The king resigned to the chapters and convents 
his claim to the nomination of bishops and abbots, and 
granted them a free election, reserving to himself no more 
than the power of giving them a licence to proceed to an 
election. 

Q. An English bishop opposed the Pope in the reign 

10—2 



220 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [lECT. 

of Henry III. a.d. 1216—1272. State some of the cir- 
cumstances. 

A. Robert Grossteste, or Greathead, bishop of Lin- 
coln, a.d. 1235, hindered Pope Innocent III. from nomi- 
nating his infant nephew to a canonry in his cathedral ; and 
while he submitted to the papal authority, he unceasingly 
enforced discipline, reformed abuses, and defended the 
Church of England against all unjust papal encroach- 
ments. 

Q. What appears to have been the relation in which 
Henry III. stood to the Pope ? ^ 

A. The Pope appears to have joined the King in 
wresting the power of election from the chapters, and in 
resisting the encroachments of the barons ; in return the 
King allowed the Pope to tax and tyrannize over the clergy, 
and to present non-resident foreigners to the most valuable 
benefices. 

Q, Quote the substance of Hume's remarks on the reign of 
Henry III. 

A . "It must be acknowledged, nevertheless, that the in- 
fluence of the prelates and the clergy were often of great service 
to the public. Though the religion of that age can merit no 
better name than that of superstition, it served to unite a body of 
men who had great sway over the people, and who kept the com- 
munity from falling to pieces, by the factious and independent 
power of nobles. And, what was of great importance, it threw a 
mighty authority into the hands of men, who by their profession 
were averse to arms and violence, who tempered by their medi- 
ation the general disposition towards military enterprizes, and 
who still maintained, even amidst the shock of arms, those secret 
links, without which it is impossible for human society to exist." 

Q. What two checks were given to the authority of 
the church in the early years of the reign of Edward I. ? 

A. (l) A statute was passed at Westminster, in 1275, 
which enacted that a clerk indicted for felony should not 
be delivered to his ordinary until he had undergone a trial 
by lawful men. (2) The statute of Mortmain, in 1279, 
made the king's consent necessary for the ratification of 
any transfer of landed property to an ecclesiastical body. 



IV.] THE CONQUEST TO THE PREACHING OF WICKLIFFE. 221 

Q. "What was the evil against which the statute of 
Mortmain was aimed? 

A. To prevent the king's exchequer from being im- 
poverished, inasmuch as the church-lands afforded neither 
wards, reliefs, nor marriages, as those of the laity did : so 
that they were said to pass into dead hands. 

Q. How did the clergy extend their spiritual power 
in the reign of Edward I. ? 

A. In 1281, at a council at Lambeth, priests were 
ordered to enforce transubstantiation, and to teach that 
the wine was only given for deglutition, the sacrament 
being contained in the bread. 

Q. How was church-property attacked by King 
Edward I. ? 

A. On the kino- demanding a fifth of their move- 
ables, they pleaded the bull of Boniface as an exemption ; 
but the king forced them to submit by denying them the 
protection of the laws, and seizing the lay-fees. 

Q. "What contest was there between English and 
foreign ecclesiastics ? 

A. Superiors of foreign religious orders were pro- 
hibited from taxing their dependent houses in England : 
and the Pope was refused the firstfruits which belonged to 
bishops, but he afterwards obtained them. 

Q. Mention some of the legislative acts which were 
passed relating to the church, from Edward I. to Wlckliffe. 
a.d. 1272 — 1356. 

A. Various acts were passed for defining the limits 
of the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, and to repress 
the authority of foreigners in the disposal of patronage, or 
the deriving of money from preferments in England. The 
contests between the kings and the convents as to the 
appointment of bishops and abbots still continued, and the 
weaker party, by appealing to Rome, gave the Popes op- 
portunities of exercising authority, to the detriment of both 
of them. The statute of Mortmain (passed a.d. 1279), 
which attempted to hinder corporate bodies from acquiring 



222 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH, &C. [lECT. 

any lands or tenements, although in force, was in many- 
ways eluded, so that a.d. 1343, the statute of Provisors 
was passed; by this the Popes were prohibited from 
making any reversionary grants of benefices, either in 
their own patronage, or that of others, or to interfere with 
the freedom of ecclesiastical elections, or to disparage the 
king's prerogative. But as this was found to compel the 
aggrieved party to carry their causes to Rome, the statute 
of Pra3munire was enacted a.d. 1352, which declared that 
if any person carried to Eome a plea which belonged to 
the king's court, he should, after a notice of two months, 
be outlawed. 

Q. A remarkable work, exposing church abuses, 
appeared about the year 1352. Give a brief account 
of it. 

A. It was entitled the " Complaint of the Plough- 
man ; " its author was not known. After a short account 
of the history of the Old, and of the doctrines of the New 
Testament, it inveighs against auricular confession, the 
selfishness of the priests, the abuses arising from their 
celibacy, sumptuous buildings, neglect of teaching, &c. ; 
and then attacks the Popes for their injustice, covetousness, 
and neglect of the spiritual welfare of the church. 



V.] THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM WICKLIFFE, &C 223 



£erture V. 

THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM WICKLIFFE TO THE REIGN OF 
HENRY VIII. A.D. 1356—1509. 



Q. Where, in what century, and from what person, 
according to Mosheim, did the sect of the Waldenses 
originate ? 

A. At Lyons, in France, in the twelfth century. He 
thinks that Peter Waldo, an opulent merchant of that city, 
(called Yaldensis, from Yaux or Waldum, a town in that 
province), was its founder ; that he employed a French 
priest, about a.d. 1160, to translate the four Gospels and 
other portions of Scripture into the French language, and 
thus perceived that the religion then taught by the Roman 
Church was entirely different from that which had been 
originally inculcated by Christ and his Apostles ; that upon 
this discovery he became a public teacher; distributed his 
wealth amongst the poor ; and that from his contempt for 
riches, and his inculcation of this feeling upon his followers, 
the sect obtained the name of Les Pauvres de Lyons. 

Q. A different account from that of Mosheim has 
been given of the origin of the Waldenses. What is it ? 

A. That in the valleys of the Cottian Alps a distinct 
society, under the name of Yaudois, existed at least fifty 
years before Peter Waldo was excommunicated by the 
Archbishop of Lyons, a.d. 1172, and that it is probable 
that the Subalpini and Paterines were but a more ancient 
name of these same Waldenses. 

Q. State reasons for supposing that the Waldenses 
existed long before Peter Waldo. 

A. There is no proof that Waldo ever visited Pied- 
mont, and it is known that his followers assumed all the 
functions of ecclesiastics without any direct appointment, 
whilst the Waldenses insisted upon a regular call and 



224 THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [lECT. 

ordination for their ministers ; that their form of govern- 
ment was episcopal, until a pestilence in the seventeenth 
century, which left but two pastors surviving, compelled 
them to have recourse to Switzerland for an additional 
supply, and that it was not until then that the presbyterian 
form of government and the Genevan liturgy were intro- 
duced amongst them. 

Q. Describe an ancient extant poem of the Wal- 
denses. 

A. It is called "La Nobla Lecon," written about 
a.d. 1100, which contains a metrical abridgment of the 
doctrine and history of the Old and New Testaments, and 
shews that the commandments, not excluding the second 
against the worship of idols, the worship of the Trinity, 
but not of the Virgin, were taught amongst them. It 
concludes with an exposure of the " errors of the papacy, 
the simony of the priesthood, masses and prayers for the 
dead, the impostures of absolution, and the abuses of the 
power of the keys." 

Q. In what manner were the doctrines of the Vaudois 
extended, and in what different ways might they have 
reached England ? 

A. They sent a colony into Calabria ; but this was 
afterwards destroyed by the Eomanists. Another section 
of them migrated to Bohemia, with which country con- 
siderable intercourse was kept up with England in the 
time of Wickliffe, as Bohemian students are known to have 
then studied at Oxford, and Richard II. married a princess 
of that country. It is supposed, also, that a portion of 
them settled in the south of France, where they were 
known as the heretical Albigenses ; and being driven from 
thence by persecution into the English territories in that 
country, they might thus extend their tenets ; so that, 
independently of all other sources from which an opposition 
to the debased system of Christianity inculcated by the 
Romanists for centuries before the Reformation, the purer 
doctrines of the Scriptures might have gained support from 



V.] WICKLIFFE TO HENRY VIII. 225 

the infusion of the holier tenets of the inhabitants of the 
Alpine fastnesses. 

Q. Two eminent prelates in the reign of Edward III. 
shewed by their conduct that " the genuine spirit of 
Christianity was by no means extinct in our land." Give 
some account of them. 

A. (l) Bradwardine, confessor and confidential chap- 
lain to Edward III., was so learned in all the sciences as 
to be called the Profound Doctor. He was consecrated Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, a.d. 1349, and died within seven 
days afterwards. He wrote an elaborate treatise against 
Pelagianism, in which the doctrines of our church are ably 
inculcated. (2) Richard Fitzralph was educated at Ox- 
ford, and appointed by Edward III. to the archbishopric of 
Armagh, a.d. 1347. In consequence of his attacking the 
abuses of the mendicant friars, he was summoned before 
the Pope at Avignon, and after suffering great hardships 
for several years, he at length died in exile in the year 
1361. 

Q. Mention, with dates, some of the leading events 
in the life of John Wickliffe. 

A. He is said to have been born a.d. 1324, at a 
village of the same name, near Greta-bridge, in Yorkshire, 
and was sent to Oxford about a.d. 1340. In the year 
1356 he wrote his tract on " The Last Age of the Church," 
occasioned by the plague of 1348, and in 1360 began to 
attack the Mendicant Orders, a.d. 1365 he became head 
of Canterbury Hall, in Oxford, and when Archbishop 
Langham, to gratify the friars, pronounced his appoint- 
ment void, he appealed in vain to the Pope, who ratified 
the sentence. When the Pope demanded of the king the 
tribute promised by King John, he maintained (a.d. 1366) 
the truth of the answer returned by the Parliament, " that 
as neither John nor any other king had power to dispose 
of his kingdom, without the consent of Parliament, no 
subsequent monarch could be bound by any such transfer, 
in itself illegal." After taking the doctor's degree, a.d. 

10—5 



226 THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [LECT. 

1372, he attacked the errors of the Romanists in his dis- 
putations ; and in 1374 he was sent as one of the king's 
commissioners to Bruges, where it was arranged that the 
Pope should discontinue the use of provisions, and the king 
should not intrude persons into benefices. In the year 
1376 Wickliffe obtained the rectory of Lutterworth and 
a prebendal stall, and in 1377 he appeared before the 
Pope's commissioners at St Paul's and Lambeth ; but by a 
fortunate combination of circumstances he escaped punish- 
ment, and retired in quiet to Oxford. Having attacked 
the doctrine of transubstantiation, and being deserted by 
his supporters, he in 1382 was compelled to retire to his 
rectory, where he died in peace, a.d. 1384, in the sixty- 
first year of his age. 

Q. State briefly some erroneous opinions which have 
been imputed to Wickliffe. 

A. (l) He argued that the wickedness of a priest 
vitiated his ministerial acts. (2) That tithes were mere 
alms, which might be withheld if sufficient provocation 
were given. (3) That even those ecclesiastical endow- 
ments which were given in perpetuity might be resumed 
under similar circumstances. (4) That bishops were not 
necessary to constitute a church. (5) That the doctrine 
of the existence of a purgatory was true. 

Q. Give three derivations of the name " Lollard." 

A. (l) It is a word compounded of the German 
lullen, lollen, lallen, and the common termination hard. 
Lollen signifies to sing in a low tone, and lolhard signi- 
fies one who frequently sings. As a great portion of the 
worship of the Lollards consisted in singing, this name 
was appropriated to them. (2) It may be derived from 
the word lolium, as heretics are called as early as Euse- 
bius, E. H. iv. 24, tares amongst the wheat. (3) It is 
asserted that the name is derived from Walter Lol- 
hard, who had been burnt at Cologne for heresy, a.d. 
1315. 

Q. What steps were taken in the reign of Richard 



V.] W1CKLIFFE TO HENRY VIII. 227 

II. and Henry IV. to restrain the power of the Pope, a.d. 
1377_1399_1413 ? 

A. In the year 1379 an act was passed which pro- 
hibited any foreigner from holding an ecclesiastical benefice 
in England, and in 1392 the statute of Praemunire was 
confirmed, which finally put an end to the nomination of 
English bishops by the Popes. In 1404 the two statutes 
of Pro visors and Pra3munire were renewed and enlarged, 
and at a subsequent period the king was restrained from 
granting licences for their violation. 

Q. How were the Lollards treated in the reign of 
Henry IY. a.d. 1399—1413 ? 

A. Before Henry came to the throne he had been 
favourable to the Lollards ; but, to strengthen his title, he 
promised the clergy to support their immunities, and to 
aid them in the extermination of heresy. In the year 
1400 a law was passed, by which bishops were authorized 
to detain a person suspected of heresy, and on his con- 
viction and refusal to recant, to deliver him to the civil 
power to be burnt. Sir William Sautre, rector of St 
Osyth's, in London, for denying the doctrine of transub- 
stantiation, was its first victim. William Thorp, a learned 
ecclesiastic, died in prison, for maintaining opinions which 
were clearly unsound ; such as the inefiicacy of the Eu- 
charist, if consecrated by an immoral priest; that the 
gospel resided in the heart of every man, and not in the 
letter; and that the clergy ought to be reduced to indi- 
gency. Thomas Badby, a tailor, was burnt at Smithfield, 
for maintaining " that a priest could not make Christ." 
Shortly afterwards sheriffs were compelled by law, at the 
request of a bishop, to burn any heretic whom he had 
condemned. Archbishop Arundel declared in a formal 
manner the Lollard doctrines to be heretical. 

Q. A remarkable leader of the Lollards was per- 
secuted in the reign of Henry V. a.d. 1413 — 1422. 
What were the circumstances ? 

A. Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, on refusing to 



2^8 THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [ 



LECT. 



appear before the Convocation, was committed to the 
Tower. When brought before the primate and several 
bishops, he persisted in denying the necessity of a belief in 
transubstantiation, penance, confession, image-worship, and 
pilgrimages, and was delivered to the secular arm for 
execution. Some delay having occurred, he escaped into 
Wales, where he contrived to elude his enemies for some 
time (a. d. 1415 — 1418), but was at length discovered, 
and burnt in London. 

Q. What appears to have induced the Parliament to 
pass such severe laws against the Lollards during the 
reign of Henry V. ; and how did the Church conciliate 
the king ? 

A. Parliament was anxious to shift the public bur- 
dens upon the estates of the clergy ; and to avoid all 
recriminations of their being inclined to heresy, they per- 
secuted the Lollards. The king, on his part, was only 
diverted from seizing on the ecclesiastical estates by Arch- 
bishop Chicheley obtaining for him a grant of the alien 
priories, which were religious houses dependent on abbeys 
in Normandy, to assist him in carrying on his foreign wars. 

Q. What bishop was deprived during the reign of 
Henry VI., and on what charge ? a. d. 1422 — 1472. 

A. Reginald Pococke, bishop of Chichester, a.d. 
1457, for asserting that Christians " were not bound to 
believe in the descent into hell, the holy Catholic Church, 
the communion of saints, transubstantiation, the infallibility 
of the universal Church, and the authority of councils." 
He was a man of turbulent disposition, and rather tended 
to retard any real reformation. 

Q. In what relation did Pope Martin V. stand to the 
English government ? 

A. In the year 1426 he wrote to Chicheley, the 
primate, inveighing against the king's usurpation of the 
papal rights, and deprived the archbishop of his legatine 
powers, for having proposed to annul all exemptions from 
Rome. The Pope also made void the statutes of Provisors 



V.] WICKLIFFE TO HENRY VIII. 229 

and Praemunire. The Bishop of Winchester was made 
legate, but his powers were curtailed by Parliament, and 
he was punished for levying money to carry on a war 
against the Bohemian heretics. 

Q. How did the English Church act with regard to 
a general council which met in the reign of Henry VI. ? 

A. The Council of Basil, 1432, having decreed " that 
the authority of a general council when sitting was para- 
mount to that of the Pope, who could not, they pro- 
nounced, dissolve it without the consent of its members," 
the Convocation of Canterbury objected to the resolution, 
and the mode in which it was passed. 

Q. What was the state of religion during the reigns 
of Edward IV. a.d. 1472—1483; Edward V. 1483; 
Richard III. 1483—1485; and Henry VII. 1485—1509? 

A. Edward IV. granted the clergy a charter, which 
exempted them from the statutes of Praemunire and Pro- 
visors, and in criminal causes from the jurisdiction of the 
civil courts. In the two subsequent reigns civil commo- 
tions interfered with the progress of learning and religion, 
and the worst features of the Romish corruptions were 
established. The laity were deprived of the cup ; and 
transubstantiation, worship of saints, processions, pilgrim- 
ages, indulgences, and superfluous festivals, comprised the 
sum of the religion of this period. Under Henry VII. 
some feeble attempts were made to stay the general cor- 
ruption of the religious orders ; but by gratifying the 
avarice of the king they easily purchased an exemption 
from all reforms. 

Q. Trace the rise and fall of papal encroachments in 
England from William I. to the accession of Henry VIII. 

A. William I. consented to receive a legate ; Henry I. 
gave up the donation of bishoprics ; Stephen conceded the 
right of appeal ; Henry II. allowed clerks to be exempt 
from the secular power ; John surrendered his kingdom, 
and consented to pay a tax of 1000 marks ; and Henry 
III. allowed absentee foreigners to hold most of the richest 



230 THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [lECT. 

benefices. After this the papal power in England began 
to decline ; by the statutes of Provisors of 25 Edward 
III. a. d. 1350, 38 Edward III. a. d. 1363, and 13 
Richard II. a.d. 1389, the king and other lords were to 
present unto benefices of their own or their ancestors' 
foundation, and not the bishop of Rome ; of Praemunire of 
27 Edward III. a.d. 1352, "forbid the suing in a foreign 
realm, or impeaching judgment given ;" of 16 Richard II. 
a.d. 1392, forbade the purchase of bulls from Rome, and 
declared the crown of England to be subject to none. 

Q. Enumerate briefly some particulars relating to the 
monastic orders in England at the commencement of the 
reign of Henry VIII. 

A. (l) The Benedictines, founded by Benedict, of 
Nursia, in Italy, who flourished about a.d. 530. His 
object was to found a society united together by milder 
rules than those of the other monks. His followers were 
to lead a retired and holy life, and to employ themselves 
in prayer, study, manual labour, and the instruction of 
youth. St Augustine is said to have brought them into 
England, a.d. 596 ; but others maintain that Dunstan, a.d. 
930, was the first to introduce them. Lanfranc, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, a.d. 1075, gave them a revised set 
of rules. All the cathedral priories, except Carlisle, be- 
longed to them ; their nunneries also were very extensive. 

(2) Odo, abbot of Clugny, a.d. 927, reformed Benedict's 
rule. His order, the Clugniacs, were brought into England 
by William, earl of Warenne, son-in-law of the Conqueror, 
who built them a house at Lewes, in Sussex, a.d. 1077. 

(3) The Cistercians, also a reformed order of Benedictines, 
arose at Cisteaux, in Burgundy, a.d. 1098, under Stephen 
Harding, an Englishman, who was joined by the famous 
St Bernard, a.d. 1113. William Giffard, bishop of Win- 
chester, founded the first Cistercian abbey in England, 
a.d. 1128. (4) The Carthusians, an austere sect of 
Benedictines, founded by Bruno, of Cologne, a.d. 1084, 
had their first house at Witham, in Somerset, a.d. 1181. 



V.] WICKLIFJb'E TO HENRY V11I. 231 

Besides the houses of these four orders of monks, there 
were a few belonging to the Grandmontines, who originated 
at Grandmont, in the Limosin, a.d. 1076, and other French 
monks and nuns, which had almost disappeared before the 
Reformation. 

Q. Give some account of the orders of priests called 
" Canons." 

A. They received the name of Canons from kglvlvv, 
regula, in consequence of their living according to a pre- 
scribed form. The Regular Canons formed societies under 
one roof, and had a common dormitory and refectory, but 
did not subject themselves to such strict regulations as the 
monks. Their chief rule being that prescribed by St 
Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa, a.d. 395, although 
their order was not founded till the time of Pope Alex- 
ander II., a.d. 1061, they were denominated Augustins, or 
Canons Regular of St Augustin. They first came to England 
a.d. 1105, and were called Black Canons, from wearing 
black cassocks and cloaks. The Regular Canons were sub- 
divided into Premonstrants, or White Canons, Gilbertines 
(founded by Gilbert of Sempringham, a Lincolnshire priest, 
a.d. 1148), and Canons of the Holy Sepulchre, who only 
differed from each other according as they adopted more 
or less of St Augustin's rule. The Secular Canons, so called 
e secalo, because they lived in the world, only differed 
from the ordinary priests in living in accordance with 
certain local statutes. 

Q. A Pope in the 13th century made a regulation 
affecting the monastic mendicant societies ; when and for 
what reason ? 

A. Gregory X., to obviate the evils arising from the 
increase in the number of begging friars, who became 
burdensome both to the people and the Church, at a 
General Council held at Lyons, a.d. 1272, prohibited all 
the new orders that had arisen since the council held at 
Rome by Innocent III. a.d. 1215, and reduced the others 



232 THE ENGLISH CHURCH FROM [lECT. 

to four orders ; viz. the Dominicans, Franciscans, Car- 
melites, and the Hermits of St Augustin. 

Q. Give a brief account of the four orders of mo- 
nastic mendicant monks. 

A. (l) The Dominicans, Black-friars, were founded 
by Dominic, a Spaniard, a. d. 1215, and were called 
Preaching Friars, from their zeal in preaching against 
the heretics in the south of France. (2) The Franciscans, 
Grey-friars, or Fraterculi, Fratricelli, Fratres Minores, 
were established by Francis, the son of a merchant of 
Assisi, in Umbria, a.d. 1223. (3) The Carmelites, White- 
friars, originated in Palestine, and were formally adopted 
into the Western Church by Honorius III., a.d. 1226. 
(4) The Augustinian Eremites were formed by Alexander 
IV., a.d. 1256, by collecting into one order, under the 
rule of St Augustin, the scattered societies of different 
bodies of eremites. In England the Dominicans settled 
in Oxford, the Franciscans in Canterbury and London, 
and the Carmelites at Alnwick in Northumberland and 
Aylesford in Kent. 

Q. Mention some of the minor orders of nuns. Where 
were they settled in England? 

A. The Benedictine nuns of Fontevrault, who came 
from Poictiers, a.d. 1161, had three houses, the principal of 
which was at Nuneaton in Warwickshire ; the poor Clairs, 
or minoresses of St Clair, a branch of the Franciscan order, 
which arose in Italy, were principally settled in Aldgate 
in London ; and the Augustin Brigitines, followers of St 
Bridget of Sweden, at Sion in Middlesex. 

Q. State briefly some particulars relating to the 
military orders. 

A. The Knights of St John, or Hospitallers, derived 
their name from their hospital built at Jerusalem, and 
dedicated to St John the Baptist, for the entertainment 
of pilgrims visiting the Holy Sepulchre. The grand prior 
of St John's was the first in dignity of the lay-barons 



V.] WICKLIFFE TO HENRY VIII. 233 

in the English parliament. They were distinguished by- 
having a black cloak with a white cross in front thrown 
over their armour. About thirty years after their foun- 
dation the Knights Templars were also instituted at Jeru- 
salem, a.d. 1118. They got their name from having a 
dwelling near the supposed site of the temple, and wore 
white cloaks having red crosses in front. They built the 
Temple in London, and nourished until a.d. 1312, when 
they were abolished by Pope Clement V., and their houses, 
called preceptories, added to those of the Hospitallers, which 
were called commandries. 

Q. Were any priories dissolved before the reign of 
Henry VIII. ? What were they, and what became of 
their possessions? 

A. Yes; the alien priories, which were introduced 
by Edward the Confessor, and made dependent upon 
foreign abbeys. Their number was much increased after 
the Conquest, by the establishment of branches of Nor- 
man religious foundations. When, however, Normandy 
became subject to the enemies of the English, and a large 
portion of the funds for carrying on wars were derived 
from ecclesiastical bodies, the alien priories were dissolved, 
as contributing by their very constitution to strengthen 
the hands of the French. Edward III. in the course of 
his wars with France sold many of them, and in 1414 
they were granted to Henry V. by Parliament, for a 
similar purpose. William of Wickham, a.d. 1390, pur- 
chased and settled several of them on his new foundation 
at Oxford. Chicheley founded All Souls out of the reve- 
nues of ancient priories. Henry VI., about 1441, endowed 
Eton and King's Colleges with alien priories. Magdalene 
and Brasenose Colleges, Oxford, and Jesus, Christ's, and 
St John's Colleges, Cambridge, were all endowed or aug- 
mented in a similar manner. 



23 4> HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 



%tttVLW VI. 

THE HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY UNTIL THE 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RELIGIOUS PEACE, A.D. 1555. 



Q. State briefly some particulars with regard to the 
early life of Luther. 

A. Martin Luther was born in humble life at Eisle- 
ben, in Saxony, a.d. 1483. Having shewn great precocity 
of talent, he was educated for the profession of the law, 
but at an early age became a monk of the order of Augus- 
tinian Eremites. He was ordained priest a.d. 1507, and 
in the following year visited Rome on the business of his 
convent. On his return he was appointed a professor at 
the newly-founded University of Wittemberg, where he 
first taught philosophy, and afterwards theology with great 
applause. 

Q. Under what circumstances had a great abuse in 
the Church arrived, in the beginning of the 16th century, 
at the greatest height ? 

A. Pope Leo X. (a.d. 1513—1522), having by his 
prodigality, by continuing the building of the Church of 
St Peter at Pome, and by engaging in the politics of Italy, 
exhausted the papal treasury, in order to recruit his 
finances was induced to offer certain " indulgences" for 
sale. These had first been issued by Alexander II. about 
a.d. 1064, in order to relieve all who visited certain 
churches from some prescribed canonical penances ; Urban 
II. a.d. 1087, had next granted them to those who either 
joined or assisted the crusaders ; and in later times they 
had been made a source of income to the Popes. At the 
commencement of the 16th century a large number had 
been issued on occasion of the jubilee, and to provide funds 
for the erection of St Peter's. 



VI 



.] REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 23 < 



Q. By whom was Luther offered the first opportunity 
of opposing the sale of indulgences? What steps did he 
then take? 

A. John Tetzel, a Dominican monk, whom Albert, 
archbishop of Mentz and Magdeburg, had chosen, on ac- 
count of his suitableness for the office, to dispose of the 
indulgences of Pope Leo X. in Germany, a. d. 1517. 
Luther, in opposition, publicly maintained at Wittemberg, 
in the September of that year, 95 propositions, in which 
he exposed the extortion of the vendors, and accused the 
Pope of being a partaker in their iniquity. 

Q. Describe the means which the Popes adopted to 
silence Luther. 

A. Leo X. having been informed that the discussions 
in Germany were assuming a serious aspect, summoned 
Luther to appear at Rome, and to plead his cause there ; 
but Frederic the Wise, elector of Saxony, having claimed 
the jurisdiction, Luther was ordered to plead his cause 
before Cardinal Cajetan, the papal legate at the Diet of 
Augsburg, a.d. 1518. 

Q. Did Luther appear at Augsburg on the Pope's 
summons ? What was the issue of the conference ? 

A. Yes ; but as Cajetan the legate, (a Dominican, an 
enemy of Luther, and friend of Tetzel), instead of attempt- 
ing to convince him of his errors, ordered him to renounce 
them, Luther appealed to the Pope, and returned to Wit- 
temberg. 

Q. How did Leo X. act after the conference at 
Augsburg between Cajetan and Luther, and what was the 
consequence ? 

A. He published an edict, in which he asserted that 
the Popes had the power to remit the punishments due to 
every sin and transgression. Luther then appealed from 
him to a general council ; Leo, having then perceived his 
own imprudence, and the unfitness of Cajetan to manage 
the controversy, appointed in his stead Millitz, a Saxon 
knight, a man of such prudence and skill that he nearly 



236 HISTORY OF THE 



LECT. 



effected a reconciliation. At length, in June 1520, on 
Luther's refusing to submit, Leo, at the instigation of 
Eckius and the Dominicans, rashly issued a bull of ex- 
communication against him, declared him a heretic, and 
ordered his writings to be burnt. 

Q. Pope Leo X. excommunicated Luther. When ? 
Relate some of the subsequent proceedings of the two 
parties. 

A. In the month of June, 1520. Luther immediately 
withdrew from the communion of the Roman Church, and, 
in the December of the same year publicly burnt at Wit- 
temberg both the bull of excommunication and the decretals 
and canons upon which the Pope's supreme jurisdiction 
were founded. In less than a month, on the 6th of Ja- 
nuary, 1521, a second bull was issued against him, by 
which, for having insulted the majesty, and rejected the 
supremacy of the Pope, he was expelled from the com- 
munion of the Church. The Pope then appealed to the 
Emperor Charles V., but he refused to do more than call 
Luther before the Diet of Worms, where his cause would 
be fairly tried. After hearing his defence, the Diet unani- 
mously declared him " to be a member cut off from the 
Church, a schismatic, a notorious and obstinate heretic, 
and an enemy to the holy Roman Empire ;" but as, instead 
of arguments, nothing but promises and threats were used 
against him, and as the electors of Cologne, Saxony, and 
the Palatinate, and other princes, who were favourable to 
his views, were not present at the Diet, this decision was 
only regarded as a party triumph. 

Q. How was Luther secured from his enemies after 
the Diet of Worms ? How was he subsequently em- 
ployed ? 

A. Frederic, the elector of Saxony, ordered him to 
be concealed in his castle of Wartenburg, where he re- 
mained for ten months, and employed his involuntary 
leisure in composing various works, amongst which was a 
translation of a greater part of the New Testament into 



VI.] REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 237 

German. After his release he settled some disturbances 
which Carlostadt, a reformer, had excited by throwing 
down the images in the churches at Wittemberg. 

Q. Who were the two immediate successors of Leo X., 
and how were they affected towards Luther and a refor- 
mation of the Church ? 

A. Adrian VI. a. d. 1522—1523, and Clement VII. 
a.d. 1523 — 1534. Adrian, at the same time that he 
demanded the execution of the sentence of the Diet of 
Worms against Luther, promised to effect a reform of some 
abuses ; but he died before anything could be done. Cle- 
ment VII. sent his legate Campeggio to the Imperial Diet 
at Nuremberg, a.d. 1522, to demand the punishment of 
Luther and his adherents ; but the German princes answered 
that a general council was the only tribunal competent to 
settle the dispute. 

Q. State briefly the particulars of two occurrences 
which retarded the progress of the Reformation in Germany 
at an early period. 

A. (1) A controversy arose amongst the reformers 
as to the manner of Christ's presence in the Eucharist ; for, 
whilst Luther and his adherents maintained " that the 
partakers of the Lord's Supper received with the bread 
and wine the real body and blood of Christ," but without 
any transubstantiation having taken place, Carlostadt, with 
Zwingle, the Swiss reformer, and others, maintained " that 
the body and blood of Christ were not really present in 
the Eucharist, and that the bread and wine were no more 
than external signs or symbols designed to excite in the 
minds of Christians the remembrance of the sufferings and 
death of the Saviour." (2) " The Rustic War, or the War 
of the Peasants," which was carried on by an enthusiastic 
mob, headed by Munzer, who perversely misunderstood 
Luther's doctrine of Christian liberty. It was put an end 
to by a defeat which they sustained at Mulhausen, a.d. 
1525, 



238 HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

Q. Who succeeded Frederic as elector of Saxony ? 
How did he act, and what steps did he take to settle the 
ecclesiastical polity of the Reformed Church ? 

A. John, his brother. He assumed the supreme 
ecclesiastical power within his dominions, and employed, 
a.d. 1527, Luther and Melancthon to draw up a body of 
laws relating to the government, discipline, and worship of 
the Church. Several other German states and princes 
also followed his example. 

Q. Give some account of two remarkable " Diets," 
which were held at Spires, to settle* the religious dissen- 
sions in Germany. 

A. At the first, a. d. 1526, the party of the Roman- 
ists proposed to put a stop to the Reformation by violent 
measures ; but at length the princes of the Germanic Em- 
pire agreed to request the Emperor to call a free (Ecu- 
menical Council, and determined that in the interval each 
state should regulate its own ecclesiastical affairs. After 
the termination of a war between the Emperor on the one 
side, and the Pope, with the Venetians and Francis king 
of France on the other (in the course of which Charles V. 
besieged the Pope in Rome, and disowned his authority 
in Spain), a treaty was concluded, and a new "Diet" 
summoned to meet at Spires, a.d. 1529, in which the 
decision of the former Diet was revoked, and every inno- 
vation whatever in religion was declared to be unlawful, 
until the promised General Council should have met and 
promulgated its decrees. 

Q. In consequence of a decree of the Diet of Spires, 
a.d. 1529, the opponents of Rome in Germany took a 
decisive step. Who were they, and what support did they 
receive ? 

A. John, elector of Saxony ; George, elector of 
Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, dukes of Lunenburg ; 
the Landgrave of Hesse ; and the Prince of Anhalt, entered 
a protest against its decisions. Fourteen imperial cities 



VI.] REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 239 

supported them, and on account of this protestation the 
name of " Protestants" was given to the reformers, April 
20th, 1529. 

Q. State some particulars relating to a remarkable 
conference which was held for the purpose of consolidating 
the reforming party. 

A. In order to reconcile the Saxon and Swiss re- 
formers, who differed on the subject of the presence of 
Christ in the Eucharistical elements, Philip, landgrave of 
Hesse, invited their leaders to a conference at Marpurg, 
a. d. 1529. After a discussion, in which Luther and 
GEcolampadius, and Melancthon and Zwingle, were the chief 
disputants, they agreed to a mutual toleration on this subject. 

Q. For what purpose were the Articles of Torgaw 
drawn up ? 

A. Luther, Melancthon, and other eminent reformers, 
drew up seventeen articles, which they presented to Charles 
V. at Torgaw. They contained an epitome of their reli- 
gious system, stated wherein they differed from the Church 
of Pome, and were intended to acquaint him with the real 
state of the controversy. 

Q. Give a brief account of the Confession of Augs- 
burg, and the circumstances of its promulgation. 

A. It contains twenty-eight chapters, of which twenty- 
one represent the opinions of the reformers, and the rest 
point out the errors of the Church of Rome. Melancthon 
drew it up, but the matter was chiefly derived from Luther 
and the Articles of Torgaw. It was subscribed by the 
princes of the protesting states, and was read at the Diet 
in the presence of the Emperor, on the 25th of June, 1530. 
On behalf of the Pomanists, Faber, Eckius, and Cochlaeus 
drew up a reply, which was answered by Melancthon. 
Several conferences also were held to reconcile the parties ; 
but the Romanists, on the 19th of November, 1530, in the 
absence of the Saxon and Hessian princes, obtained an 
imperial edict, which ordered every one to return to their 
allegiance to Rome; whereupon the reforming party entered 



240 HISTORY OF THE 



LECT. 



into an alliance, which is known by the name of " The 
League of Smalcald." 

Q. Under what circumstances was Charles V. recon- 
ciled to the Protestants after the promulgation of the edict 
of Augsburg, a.d. 1530 ? 

A. As the Protestants refused to assist him in his 
wars against the Turks, whilst the edicts of Worms and 
Augsburg were in force, and also contended that the 
election of his brother Ferdinand to the dignity of the 
king of the Romans was informal, the Emperor, in 1532, 
concluded with them the " Peace of Nuremberg," in which 
he agreed to annul these edicts, and to grant them the free 
exercise of their own religious system, until a rule of faith 
should be fixed, either by a general council, which was to 
be assembled within six months, or by a diet of the 
empire. 

Q. Were any steps taken by the Emperor and the 
Popes to call a general council ? What was the result ? 

A. Clement VII. who died a.d. 1534, and was suc- 
ceeded by Paul III., from a dread of his authority being 
diminished, and of being deposed on account of the ille- 
gitimacy of his birth, evaded the request of the Emperor, 
whilst Paul so far complied as to send circular letters for 
convening a council at Mantua. But the Protestants ob- 
jected to it; first, because the council was to meet in 
Italy ; secondly, because it was called by the Pope on his 
own authority alone, whereas the Emperor and the other 
Christian Potentates ought to have been consulted. They 
therefore assembled in a body, in the year 1537, and, 
under the direction of Luther, drew up a new summary of 
faith, entitled " The Articles of Smalcald." 

Q. Give, from Mosheim, a summary of the events 
which happened between the summoning of the Council of 
Mantua and the death of Luther, a.d. 1536 — 1546. 

A. After various measures had been proposed both 
by the Emperor and the Protestants, for the restoration of 
peace and unity, the former, in 1541, appointed a confer- 



VI.] REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 241 

ence at Worms, (which was afterwards removed to Ratis- 
bon), where Melancthon and Eckius held a disputation, 
which continued three days. The Pope issued circulars 
convening a general council to meet at Trent, whilst the 
Protestants objected both to his summoning it in his own 
name and on his own authority, and likewise to the place 
of meeting. Upon this the Emperor, at the instigation of 
Paul, determined to have recourse to arms ; the princes 
of Hesse and Saxony raised an army for their own defence ; 
but before affairs were brought to a crisis Luther died at 
Wittemberg, Feb. 18, a.d. 1546. 

Q. Mention, briefly, some adverse events which befel 
the Protestants soon after the death of Luther, a.d. 1546. 

A. On the 24th of April, a.d. 1547, Charles de- 
feated and took prisoner the elector of Saxony, at a battle 
near Muhlberg on the Elbe, and Philip, landgrave of 
Hesse, was prevailed upon by his son-in-law, Maurice, 
duke of Saxony, who had betrayed the interests of the 
Protestants, to throw himself on the mercy of Charles V. 
In the diet which met shortly afterwards at Augsburg it 
was ordered by the emperor, Maurice, now become, by 
treachery, elector of Saxony, and a majority of the mem- 
bers, that the Protestants should leave all religious matters 
to the decision of the Council of Trent. 

Q. Under what circumstances was the edict called 
the Formula ad Interim issued ? How did it affect the 
Reformers ? 

A. When the Council of Trent was in effect dissolved 
by its removal to Bologna, on account of the plague having 
appeared at Trent, the emperor issued this edict in order 
to maintain peace in religious matters, until some final 
decision could be obtained. At an assembly of the Saxon 
nobility and clergy, a.d. 1548, called by Maurice, elector 
of Saxony, Melancthon having given it as his opinion that 
although the Reformers could not adopt the whole book 
called the Interim, still in things not relating to essential 
points it might be approved ; a schism called " The Adia- 
11 



242 HISTORY OF THE [lECT. 

phoristic Controversy/ 5 (from d$id<popo$, indifferent), arose 
between two parties of the Lutherans ; but as their enemies 
were too weak to avail themselves of this advantage, it 
caused no great injury to the Protestant cause. 

Q. Who renewed the project of the Council of Trent ? 
What conditions did Maurice exact in giving his consent ? 

A. Julius III., who succeeded Paul, a.d. 1550. The 
conditions exacted by Maurice were : that the decisions of 
the preceding council should be re-examined in the pre- 
sence of the Protestant divines, or their deputies ; that the 
Saxon Protestants should have the right of voting as well 
as deliberating in the council ; and that the Pope should 
not pretend to preside in it, either in person or by his 
legates. 

Q. What was the result of the schemes of the em- 
peror and of Maurice ? 

A. Maurice secretly ordered the Protestant divines 
to stop at Nuremberg, whilst, by the assistance of the king 
of France and certain German princes, (who dreaded that 
the emperor was only anxious for the council in order that 
he might humble the Pope, and curtail the liberties of the 
Germans by their dissensions), he collected an army, and by 
a rapid movement nearly surprised Charles at Inspruck. 
The emperor was so alarmed that he consented to the 
famous '■' Treaty of Passaw," a.d. 1552, which secured 
important privileges to the Protestants, and stipulated that 
a diet should be called within the space of six months. 

Q. Mention some of the leading articles of the Treaty of 
Passaw. 

A . In the first three articles it was stipulated, " that Maurice 
and the confederates should lay down their arms, and lend their 
troops to Ferdinand to defend Germany against the Turks, and 
that the Landgrave of Hesse should be set at liberty. By the 
fourth the ' Interim' was declared null and void ■ the contending 
parties were secured in the free exercise of their religion, until a 
diet for the determining of disputes should be convened ; that 
this liberty should continue in force, even though a uniformity in 
doctrine and worship should not be amicably agreed to in the 
diet ; that those who had suffered on account of their being con- 



VI.] REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 243 

cerned in the war of Smalcald should he re-instated in their pos- 
sessions and privileges ; and that the Imperial Chamber at 
Spires should be constituted of Protestants as well as of Roman 
Catholics." 

Q. When and where was the diet, stipulated for in the 
treaty of Passaw, a.d. 1552, called ? What memorable acts were 
passed in it ? 

A. At Augsburg, a.d. 1555. It secured the "Religious 
Peace" of the Protestants by the following stipulations : — "That 
the Protestants, who followed the confession of Augsburg, should 
be for the future considered as entirely exempt from the jurisdiction 
of the Roman Pontiff, and from the authority and superintend- 
ence of the bishops ; that they should be left at perfect liberty to 
enact laws for themselves, relating to their religious sentiments, 
discipline, and worship ; that all the inhabitants of the German 
Empire should be allowed to judge for themselves in religious 
matters, and join themselves to that church whose doctrine and 
worship they thought most consonant to the spirit of Christianity ; 
and that all those who should injure or persecute any person 
under religious pretexts, and on account of their opinions, should 
be declared and proceeded against as public enemies of the em- 
pire, invaders of its liberty, and disturbers of its peace." 



11— 2 



244 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECI 



%tttun vii. 

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF 
HENRY VIII. A. D. 1509—1547. 



Q. Who was Archbishop of Canterbury during the 
early part of the reign of Henry VIII. ? 

A. William Warham, a.d. 1503—1533. 

Q. Mention two circumstances which had a tendency 
to diminish the influence of the clergy in the early part of 
the reign of Henry VIII. 

A. (l) In the year 1513 a bill was passed by Par- 
liament, which, while it subjected all robbers and mur- 
derers to the civil power, enacted that all bishops, priests, 
and deacons, should be exempted from its operation; but 
that it should not remain in force beyond that parliament. 
On its expiration, after a sharp contest, the king decided 
that he had jurisdiction over all his subjects. (2) In the 
year 1514, Hunne, a respectable citizen of London, having 
been apprehended for refusing to pay certain parochial 
fees, was found dead in prison. The coroner's jury re- 
turned a verdict of wilful murder against Horsey, the 
chancellor; and although the matter was compromised, a 
deep feeling of dislike to the ecclesiastical body was en- 
gendered amongst the people. 

Q. Give a brief account of the early life of Wolsey. 

A. Wolsey was born of humble parents at Ipswich, 
a.d. 1471. At an early age he was sent to Magdalen 
College, Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship ; soon 
afterwards he was appointed master of Magdalen School, 
and in 1500 was presented to the rectory of Lymington, 
in Somersetshire. He next became chaplain to the trea- 
surer of Calais, who obtained for him a chaplaincy in the 
household of Henry VII. Fox, bishop of Winchester, 
having employed him in some negociation in Germany, in 



VII ,] DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. 245 

which he shewed great talents, he was, on his return, 
made dean of Lincoln and king's almoner. Henry VIII. 
raised him successively to the bishopric of Lincoln, and the 
archbishopric of York, a.d. 1514. In 1515 he became 
lord chancellor, and was created a cardinal, and legate a 
latere. In 1518 he was allowed to hold the bishopric of 
Bath and Wells in commendam with York ; the former he 
exchanged for Durham, a.d. 1523, and that again for 
Winchester, in 1529. 

Q. What induced Henry VIII. to write against 
Luther ? What effect was produced by his work ? 

A. Luther, in his " Babylonish Captivity," having 
unsparingly attacked the works of Thomas Aquinas, a 
Dominican friar, who was the founder of the Thomist sect 
of divines, and was called the Angelic Doctor; Henry, 
who had been originally destined for holy orders, and was 
a great admirer of the doctor, wrote, in reply, a Latin 
treatise upon the " Seven Sacraments," a.d. 1521. Upon 
receiving a copy of the work, the Pope gave the King the 
title of " Defender of the Faith." Luther answered it, 
but afterwards, in 1525, apologized to Henry for the 
severity with which he had spoken of him personally. 

Q. State briefly the circumstances which led Henry 
VIII. to wish for a divorce from Queen Catherine. 

A. Catherine, the fourth daughter of Ferdinand and 
Isabella of Spain, had been married to Arthur, prince of 
Wales, the eldest son of Henry VII. on the 14th of No- 
vember, a.d. 1501. He was then sixteen years old; 
Catherine was a little older. On the 16th of April fol- 
lowing Arthur died. A bull, dated 26th December, 1503, 
was obtained from Pope Julius II., by which Prince 
Henry (who was then in his twelfth year) and Catherine 
were freed from ecclesiastical censures, in the event of their 
contracting a marriage. Henry, although he had in his 
fourteenth year protested, and his father on his death-bed 
had warned him, against such a union, within six weeks of 
his accession, on June 3, 1509, made Catherine his bride. 



246 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [LECT. 

They lived together for nearly nineteen years, during 
which time they had three sons and two daughters, who all 
died in infancy, except the Lady Mary, who was born on 
the 8th of February, 1515. In 1524 the king began to 
entertain scruples as to the propriety of his marriage ; next 
year he separated from Catherine, and was confirmed in his 
intention of seeking for a divorce, by the royal families of 
Spain and France objecting to a matrimonial alliance with 
the Princess Mary, on the ground of her illegitimacy. 

Q. What were the politic, and what the ostensible 
reasons of the Pope for granting the original dispensation ? 

A. The league against his enemy the King of France 
was strengthened, and the title to the crown, of England 
was thenceforth made dependent upon the validity of his 
bull ; but the reason assigned was the necessity of confirm- 
ing the alliance between the two kingdoms. 

Q. State some of the reasons assigned by each party 
for and against the divorce. 

A. Henry alleged a real scruple as to the lawfulness 
of marrying a brother's widow ; and that the premature 
death of his offspring had put him in fear of the curse of 
the Levitical law. Catherine alleged that the divorce was 
a mere contrivance of Wolsey to annoy the Emperor, for 
not assisting him in becoming Pope. Some said that the 
French having pleaded Mary's doubtful position for break- 
ing off a match between her and their prince ; and others, 
that the king's being smitten by the beauty of Anne 
Boleyn, and the desire of a male heir, were the real 
causes for his wishing for the divorce. 

Q. Did the English ecclesiastics express any opinion 
as to the validity of Henry's marriage ? 

A. In 1527, Wolsey having declined to give the 
King his own opinion, called a meeting of prelates and 
other ecclesiastics at Westminster ; but they arrived at no 
certain resolution, Fisher, of Rochester, being the only 
one who openly expressed his disapprobation of annulling 
the marriage. 



VII.] DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. 2^7 

Q. In what position did the English ambassador, 
who applied for the divorce, find the Pope ? 

A. The Emperor had taken Rome in May 8, 1527, 
and got Clement into his power. The Pope, either from 
fear of personal violence, or of being deposed, declined 
giving any direct answer. After his escape, however, to 
Orvieto, in 1528, he was prevailed upon to depute Cardi- 
nals Wolsey and Campeggio to try the cause in England. 
The trial commenced in May 1529 ; but in July, Cam- 
peggio, instead of giving sentence, adjourned the court 
until October, and forthwith an avocation of the cause to 
Rome was decreed there. In the August following Henry 
protested against it ; and in consequence of his dissatisfac- 
tion with Wolsey, that minister was disgraced in the 
November of the same year. 

Q. State the purport of the first laws hostile to the 
Church passed under Henry VIII. 

A. In November 1529 a parliament was called, in 
which Wolsey was impeached, and bills against exactions 
for probates of wills, excessive mortuaries, pluralities and 
non-residence, and farmhig of benefices by the clergy, (the 
latter aimed against the Pope's dispensations), notwith- 
standing the strenuous opposition of Fisher, were passed. 

Q. Mention the steps that were taken to obtain a 
divorce after the avocation of the suit to Rome, and state 
the circumstances under which the King was declared the 
supreme head of the Church. 

A. In February 1530 the English universities were 
consulted ; Cambridge immediately, and Oxford in April, 
decided that the marriage was inconsistent with the laws 
of God, but said nothing as to the papal power of dis- 
pensation. A special legation, of whom Cranmer was one, 
was then sent to Rome, where they offered to defend these 
propositions : (l) that a marriage with a brother's widow 
was prohibited by the law of God, (2) that the Bishop of 
Rome had no right to dispense with this prohibition ; but 
they were never called on, and Cranmer departed into 



248 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [LECT. 

Germany. Between the months of May and October, the 
Italian and French universities, and a great number of 
eminent individuals, especially the Reformers, gave their 
opinions in favour of the divorce. These were published, 
and a fresh application made to the Pope, in the form of a 
petition, from the great body of the English nation, which 
declared that, if unsuccessful, they must resort to other 
means. In September the Pope sent a becoming reply, 
but gave no redress ; before, however, it arrived in 
England, Henry issued a proclamation, founded on the 
statutes of praemunire and pro visors v against all bulls, &c. 
obtained without his consent. On January 16, 1531, 
parliament and convocation were assembled ; the decisions 
were laid before the Lords and Commons, with an order 
that they should make them known to their constituents, 
and shew that the King only desired to discharge his 
conscience and to secure the succession to the crown. The 
convocation also was constrained to declare the original 
bull invalid. Soon after the death of Wolsey, in Novem- 
ber 1530, the whole of the clergy were brought under a 
praemunire for owning his legatine authority, and com- 
pelled to offer to compound with the King ; but he refused, 
until they " submitted to own him their sole and supreme 
head, next and immediately after Christ." When the 
Archbishop, Warham, demanded the sense of the houses of 
convocation, most of the members said nothing ; upon which 
he told them, " silence implied consent.'' To this they 
replied, " then we are all silent." At last they agreed to 
acknowledge the King supreme lord and protector, and 
also, as far as was consistent with the laws of the gospel, 
supreme head of the Church in England, a.d. 1531. 

Q. Who succeeded Warham as archbishop ? Mention 
some particulars of his early life. 

A. Thomas Cranmer. He was born at Aslacton, in 
Lincolnshire, on the 2nd of July, 1489, of a good family. 
At the age of fourteen, in 1503, he was sent to Jesus 
college, Cambridge, where he was distinguished for his 



VII.] DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. 249 

proficiency in the university course of study. He obtained 
a fellowship in 1511, but shortly afterwards vacated it by 
marriage. He then became lecturer of the present Mag- 
dalen college. On the death of his wife he was re-elected 
to his fellowship in Jesus college, and appointed by the 
university examiner of the candidates for theological de- 
grees. Shortly afterwards he was introduced to the King. 

Q. How did Cranmer, at his consecration, modify 
the usual oath ? 

A. On the 30th of March, 1533, Cranmer solemnly 
declared, " that he should only take the oath to the Roman 
see to comply with an established custom ; that he would 
not be a party to any proceedings by which the law of 
God, or the prerogatives of King or state of England, 
would be affected; and that he would adopt no measures 
except such as seemed advantageous to the reformation of 
the Church or state." 

Q. When was Cranmer consecrated? What steps 
were then taken by the convocation and parliament with 
regard to the papal claims ? 

A. On the 30th of March, 1533, and the forty-fourth 
year of his age. Convocation determined that the mar- 
riage of Catherine with Arthur having been consummated, 
it was unlawful for her to become the wife of Henry, his 
brother. An act of parliament was also passed which 
prohibited appeals to Rome under the penalty of a prae- 
munire. 

Q. Did Cranmer officiate at the king's marriage with 
Anne Boleyn? When did it take place? Where was 
Elizabeth born ? 

A. No ; Dr Rowland Lee, afterwards Bishop of 
Lichfield and Coventry, performed the ceremony in a 
private manner, on the 25th of January, and the Princess 
Elizabeth was born on the 13th of September, 1533. 

Q. State some particulars relating to the final rapture 
of Henry with the Pope, and the treatment experienced 
by Queen Catherine. 

11—5 



250 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

A. When Henry was cited to appear personally at 
Rome, he pleaded the privileges of the crown ; but, not- 
withstanding this, the negociations still continued ; and as 
the Pope was to meet the King of France at Marseilles, in 
the year 1533, it was expected that a satisfactory arrange- 
ment of the difficulty would have been made. The Pope, 
however, having delayed his journey until the autumn, 
Henry publicly acknowledged his marriage on the Easter 
Eve. On the day previous Cranmer had been authorized by 
the King to nullify the marriage with Catherine. On the 
10th of May he summoned the parties before his court at 
Dunstable (Longland, bishop of Lincoln, and Gardiner, bishop 
of Winchester, were his assessors). The King appeared by 
proxy ; but Catherine took no notice of the citation. On 
the 23rd of May the former marriage of Henry with 
Catherine was declared void, and that with Anne Boleyn 
was confirmed. The Pope pronounced the acts of Cran- 
mer to be a nullity, and gave Henry until the opening of 
the Roman courts, in September, to restore matters to 
their former state. When Clement arrived at Marseilles, 
in the October following, notwithstanding the entreaties of 
Francis, he declared that the cause must be submitted to 
the proper courts at Rome, upon which Boner, as Henry's 
envoy, produced his appeal to the next general council. 
Clement left Marseilles in November, and the negociations 
were still continued, and in December a fresh application 
to the Pope was determined upon. The French ambas- 
sador then hastened to Rome from London with the news, 
that England was not yet absolutely lost to their Church. 
A written engagement was sent from thence to the King, 
undertaking, that if he would submit his case to the papal 
courts they would use every endeavour to bring it to a 
favourable issue, and that a body of cardinals, known to 
be unbiassed to the Emperor, should meet at Cambray. 
The same French ambassador sent this intelligence to 
England, intimating also that the answer must be returned 
on a fixed day, otherwise that a refusal would be assumed. 



VII 



.] DURING THE REIGN OP HENRY VIII. 2-51 



Henry upon this sent a full assent to this proposal, but, as 
the courier was delayed beyond the time, the cardinals in 
the Emperor's interest induced the Pope and consistory, 
on the 23rd of March, 1534, hastily to affirm the legality 
of Henry's marriage with Catherine, and to require him, 
under the threat of ecclesiastical censures, to receive her 
again as his wife. Two days afterwards the English mes- 
senger arrived, but the Pope, fearing Charles, would not 
reconsider the acts of the consistory. 

Q. Two remarkable circumstances occurred in the 
year 1533, which illustrate the state of the religious feel- 
ing in England. Give some account of them. 

A. (l) John Frith, who had been educated at Cam- 
bridge, and transferred to Oxford by Wolsey, had, to 
avoid persecution for holding the opinions of the reformers, 
retired to the continent in 1528. He however returned 
in 1530, and was burnt in Smithfield, a.d. 1533, for 
maintaining that a belief in purgatory and transubstan- 
tiation was not obligatory on Christians. (2) Elizabeth 
Barton, called the " Maid of Kent," who had been suborned 
to deliver preternatural admonitions against the divorce, 
was, with several of her abettors, executed on a charge of 
high treason. 

Q. When and by what means was the English nation 
formally emancipated from its dependence upon the see of 
Rome ? What regulations were adopted ? 

A. By acts of parliament passed in the early part of 
the year 1534, which enacted that Peter-pence, and all 
other payments to the Pope, should be abolished, and that 
all dispensations and indulgences, not contrary to the law 
of God, were to be granted by the English archbishops. 
The act against the payment of annates, or firstfruits, was 
also then strictly enforced. It was also agreed that no 
new constitutions should be passed by convocation without 
the royal sanction ; that a commission should be appointed 
to revise the canons ; that religious houses immediately 
dependent upon the Pope should be subjected to the visi- 



252 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

tation of the crown ; and lastly, that the deans and chap- 
ters, or the priors and convents of the cathedral churches 
should nominate, and the metropolitan consecrate, such 
persons as the king should present to vacant bishoprics, 
under the penalty of a praemunire. 

Q. By what means and at what time was Henry 
VIII. declared the Supreme Head of the English Church ? 

A. The convocation having, in the early part of the 
year 1534, declared that the King's power over his sub- 
jects extended to ecclesiastical affairs, the parliament, which 
met on the 3rd of November of the, same year, confirmed 
and ratified this decision, by enacting, " that the supreme 
authority over the English Church should hereafter be 
invested in the crown ; and that the sovereign should be 
empowered to exercise the rights, privileges, and jurisdic- 
tion properly appertaining to the highest ecclesiastical 
authority." 

Q. State the origin of the valuation of ecclesiastical 
preferments which is inscribed in the " Liber Regis." 

A. In the year 1534, the firstfruits and tenths which 
had been formerly paid to the Popes, but had been for- 
bidden in a former session of the parliament, were trans- 
ferred to the King ; and to ensure their proper discharge, a 
new valuation of all spiritual preferments was then com- 
menced, although it was not completed until several years 
afterwards. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to two illus- 
trious individuals who were executed for denying the 
supremacy of Henry VIII. 

A. (l) Fisher, bishop of Rochester, was executed 
June 22, 1535, at the age of fourscore years. He had 
been confessor to Lady Margaret, countess of Richmond, 
and instrumental in founding Christ's and St John's col- 
leges, Cambridge, as well as the Divinity Professorships 
and Preacherships in Cambridge and Oxford. (2) Sir 
Thomas More was also beheaded July 6, of the same year; 
he had been brought up as a lawyer, and in 1523 became 



VII.] DURING THE REIGN . OF HENRY VIII, 253 

speaker of the House of Commons. On the death of 
Wolsey, a.d. 1529, he was made lord chancellor, but 
had resigned his office in 1532, and retired into private 
life. He was tried on the act of succession and supremacy, 
and condemned chiefly for denying the latter. 

Q. From what period may the existence of the 
Church of England as a distinct body be dated? When 
in reality ? 

A. From the period of the divorce and the cessation 
of all payments, a.d. 1534; but really from the bull of 
Paul III., dated 1538. 

Q. An extraordinary office was created by Henry 
VIII. Who held it, and what was his subsequent fate ? 

A. Cromwell, a man of low origin, who had been 
brought up in the household of Wolsey, had been created 
the King's Vicar-general, for the visitation of monasteries 
and settling of ecclesiastical affairs. By virtue of this office 
he became, in 1535, the supreme ordinary of, and exercised 
all the power previously enjoyed by the Pope in, the 
English Church. He was subsequently created Earl of 
Essex, but at length, in 1540, perished on the scaffold. 

Q. Mention succinctly some dates relative to the dis- 
solution of the Monasteries. 

A. 

A.D. 

1535. Visitation of monasteries began in October. 
The first resignation was dated on the 13th 
of November. 

1536. Act for the dissolution of the smaller monas- 
teries was passed before April 14. 

1537. A new visitation of monasteries took place. 

1539. Parliament ratified their dissolution, and 
granted their revenues to the king, 

1540. The Knights of St John of Jerusalem were 
suppressed on April 22. 

1545. Colleges and chantries were granted to the 
king, but the two Universities were excepted. 



254 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

Q. The cause of the Reformation was strengthened 
in two circumstances in the year 1535. What were 
they? 

A. (1) By the appointing to several vacant sees 
divines favourable to the Reformation. (2) By the pub- 
lication of the English Primer, in which the people were 
taught the absurdity of addressing prayers to the virgin 
or the saints. It also contained the Ten Commandments, 
the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and several useful expo- 
sitions and devotional treatises, in English. 

Q. Give the substance of the Articles of Religion 
which were adopted by the Convocation and the King, 
a.d. 1536. 

A. It was declared, (l) that the particulars of the 
Christian faith were contained in the canon of the Bible, 
and were briefly enumerated in the Apostolic, Nicene, and 
Athanasian Creeds ; and that all other doctrines were 
heretical, especially such as were condemned by the first 
four General Councils; (2) that baptism was a sacrament 
necessary to salvation ; (3) that penance, which consisted 
of contrition, confession, and amendment of life, was a 
sacrament; (4) that in the sacrament of the Altar "under 
the form and figure of bread and wine is verily, sub- 
stantially, and really, contained and comprehended the 
body and blood of our Saviour Jesus Christ;" (5) that 
justification signified "the remission of our sins, and our 
acceptation or reconciliation into the grace and favour of 
God," and was a gift of God " promised freely unto us 
for the sake of Jesus Christ, and the merits of his blood 
and passion, as the only sufficient and worthy causes 
thereof." The five remaining articles related to laudable 
ceremonies, and declared (l) that images might be used as 
kindlers to devotion ; (2) that saints were to be honoured ; 
(3) that prayers to saints were laudable; (4) that cere- 
monies were useful to raise men's minds to God ; (5) that 
as it was charitable, mentioned in the book of Maccabees, 
recommended by divers ancient doctors, and an usage 



VII.] DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. 255 

which had continued in the Church so many years, even 
from the beginning, to pray for souls departed, no man 
ought to be grieved at the continuance of this practice ; 
but it was allowed that " the place where they be, and 
the name thereof, and the nature of the pains there, be 
uncertain by Scripture ;" and repudiated distinctly the idea, 
that any pardons from the Bishop of Rome could deliver 
souls from purgatory, and send them direct to heaven. 

Q. State briefly the purport of the " Six Articles." 

A. (l) They established the Romish doctrine of 
transubstantiation ; (2) excluded the laity from communion 
in both kinds ; (3) forbade the marriage of priests ; (4) 
declared vows of celibacy to be obligatory ; (5) upheld 
the necessity of private masses for souls in purgatory ; 
(6) pronounced auricular confession to be expedient. The 
act received the Royal assent June' 28, 1539. 

Q. Certain penalties were incurred by those who 
opposed the act of Six Articles. What were they ? 

A. The act became law on the 28th of June, 1539, 
and it enacted that if any one after the 12th of July 
wrote or spoke against the first article, i. e. transubstan- 
tiation, he was to be burnt ; if he controverted any of the 
other five, i. e. the necessity of communion in one kind, 
celibacy of priests and other ecclesiastics, purgatory, or 
confession, he was to be imprisoned for life ; but if his 
opposition was wilful, or he preached against them, he was 
to suffer death. 

Q. How did the mass of the people view the sup- 
pression of the monasteries, and what steps were taken by 
them in consequence ? 

A. In the autumn of the year 1536, a commotion 
was raised in Lincolnshire, but by the prudence and mode- 
ration of the Duke of Suffolk the people were dispersed. 
A more formidable insurrection broke out in the North of 
England ; it was entitled the " Pilgrimage of Grace," and 
was only composed for a time by the concessions of the 
government ; but when the people rose again in the fol- 



256 HISTORY OE THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT- 

lowing year, the king was better prepared, and dispersed 
them by force of arms. 

Q. Give an approximation to the number of larger religious 
houses that were suppressed. 

Minoresses 3 

Bridgetines 1 

Bonhommes 2 

Hospitallers 48? 

Colleges 80? 

Hospitals 110? 

Chantries, &c 2374? 



A. Benedictines 186 

Cluniacs 20 

Carthusians 9 

Cistercians 101 

Austins 173 

Premonstrants 32 

Gilbertins 25 

Fontevraud Nuns 3 



Larger Monasteries 555, revenue of about £142,914 
Smaller, clear revenue of 30,000 



172,914 



Q. At what period and under what circumstances 
was Cranmer's Bible published? 

A. In the year 1539. It was found, notwithstanding 
the repeated injunctions which at various times had been 
issued for providing an English Bible for every Church, 
that many were still unprovided. To remedy this defect, 
and to ensure the best type and paper, a large corrected 
edition had been printed in Paris, under the superintend- 
ence of Boner, the English ambassador; but the inquisition 
having seized the copies, the types were transferred to 
England, and a new edition, enriched by a preface by Cran- 
mer, was subsequently printed. A royal proclamation, 
issued in May 1539, imposed a penalty of forty shillings 
a month upon those curates and parishioners who neglected 
to provide an English Bible for the use of the Church. 

Q. Who first printed any part of the Bible in Eng- 
lish ? Give a brief account of his labours. 

A. William Tyndale. He, in conjunction with Frith 
and William Roye, printed in Flanders, a.d. 1526, a trans- 
lation of the New Testament from the Greek. Whilst he 
was proceeding with the Old Testament, and had only 



VII.] DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. 257 

finished the Pentateuch and the book of Jonas, he suffered 
martyrdom. The Dutch booksellers afterwards employed 
George Joye to prepare a new edition of Tyndale. He 
introduced several alterations, and added a translation of 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Psalms, made by himself. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to the English 
translations of the Bible from that of Tyndale's, a.d. 1526, 
to that of Cranmer, a.d. 1539, and from that time to the 
death of Henry, a.d. 1547. 

A. In 1535, Miles Coverdale, at the request and 
under the patronage of Henry VIII., published what was 
called a special translation ; and in 1537 Matthew's ver- 
sion, compiled partly from Tyndale's and partly from 
Coverdale's, appeared. Cranmer's was a corrected edition 
of that which went under the name of Matthew's. In 
1542, Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, endeavoured to 
restrict its use, on account of its inaccuracies. Cranmer 
got over this difficulty, by proposing that it should be 
referred to the universities ; nothing, however, was ac- 
complished. In the subsequent year the indulgence of 
having copies was confined to noblemen and gentlemen, 
who were allowed to read it to their families; to merchants, 
to read privately and alone ; and to women, if of noble or 
gentle blood, under the same restrictions. Every artificer 
or husbandman who should be detected using it was to be 
imprisoned, and to be liable to suffer corporal punishment ; 
and these restrictions were continued in force until the 
death of Henry, a.d. 1547. 

Q. Briefly describe three doctrinal works published 
by authority in the reign of Henry VIII. 

A. (l) Articles devised by the Kinges Highnes Ma- 
jestie, to stably she Christen quietnes and unitie among us, 
published a.d. 1536. (2) The godly and pious institution 
of a Christen man, a.d. 1537. This book being dedicated 
by the bishops to the king, was called the Bishops' Book. 
(3) A necessary doctrine and erudition for any Christen 



2-58 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [LECT. 

man, was " set furthe by the king, with the advyse of his 
Clergy ; the Lordes both spiritual and temporall, with the 
nether house of Parliament, having both sene and lyked 
it very well," a.d. 1543. This book being addressed by 
the king to the people, was on that account called the 
King's Book. (4) The King's Primer was published a.d. 
1545. It contained, amongst other things, the Lord's 
Prayer, Creed, Ten Commandments, Venite, Te Deum, 
and various hymns and collects in English. 



VIII.] DURING THE REIGN OF EDWARD VI, 259 



Ettturc VIII. 

THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF EDWARD VI. 
A. D. 1547—1553. 



Q. When and at what age did Edward VI. succeed 
his father ? How was the new government affected towards 
the Reformers ? 

A. On the 28th January, 1547, in the tenth year of 
his age. His uncle Edward Seymour, earl of Hartford, 
afterwards created Duke of Somerset, was declared Pro- 
tector. He was favourable to the Reformation, and co- 
operated with Cranmer in promoting its advancement. 

Q. State briefly some of the causes which retarded 
the Reformation at the commencement of the reign of 
Edward VI., a.d. 1547. 

A. As the court of augmentation, which had been 
appointed to apply the revenues of the suppressed religious 
houses granted to the king, to increase the royal income, 
agreed to pay the ejected monks certain sums until they 
could be provided with benefices, every opportunity was 
seized upon to relieve their funds by promoting them. 
These new incumbents were of course hostile to the re- 
formed doctrines and practices, and impeded their adoption. 
The system of impropriations also, combined with the 
diminution of Church fees, had so reduced the value of 
many livings, that men of education had ceased to take 
holy orders, and great dissatisfaction with the new state of 
things was felt by parishes, especially such as were situ- 
ated in towns, at the curtailment of the number and 
efficiency of their clergy. 

Q. What steps were taken by Cranmer to increase 
the efficiency and purity of the ecclesiastical establishment, 
shortly after the death of Henry VIII., a.d. 1547 ? 

A. Curates were directed to take down such images 



260 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH [lECT. 

as had been used for superstitious practices, and to attend 
to their duties, especially of reading the scriptures to their 
congregations, with increased zeal. The first book of 
homilies was published for the use of the clergy, and a 
copy of the paraphrase of Erasmus was set up in every 
church to instruct the laity. Bishops also were enjoined 
to be very circumspect in admitting candidates for ordina- 
tion. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, and Bonner, bishop 
of London, were imprisoned for their opposition to the new 
regulations. 

Q. Under what circumstances ^was the first Liturgy 
of Edward VI. drawn up ? What offices did it contain, 
and by what authority was it published ? 

A. The Convocation having on the 2nd December, 
1547, declared that the communion ought to be ad- 
ministered to all persons in both kinds, an act of parlia- 
ment was passed, on March 8, 1548, which ordered this 
to be done, and a short formulary for this purpose was 
added to the end of the Latin mass. On the 4th May, 
1549, the whole of the Common Prayer was put forth in 
English. It contained " public offices not only for Sundays 
and Holidays, but for Baptism, Confirmation, Matrimony, 
Burial of the Dead, and other special occasions ; in which 
the forementioned office for the holy Communion was in- 
serted, with many alterations and amendments. And the 
whole book being so framed, was set forth by the common 
agreement and full assent both of the Parliament and Con- 
vocations provincial, i. e. the two convocations of the pro- 
vinces of Canterbury and York." ( Wheatley.) 

Q. Under what circumstances was a new bishop ap- 
pointed to the see of London ? Mention some particulars 
of his life. 

A. In the autumn of the year 1549, Bonner had 
been ordered to maintain, in a sermon at St Paul's Cross, 
the power of the king while a minor, and that the acts of 
the council were equally binding with those of the king 
during his minority. He was deprived for omitting to do 



VIII.] DURING THE REIGN OF EDWARD VI. 261 

so, and Ridley was appointed to the united sees of London 
and Westminster, on Feb. 24, 1550. Ridley was born at 
Wilmontswick, in the beginning of the 16th century ; took 
his.B.A. degree at Pembroke college, Cambridge, a. d. 
1522 ; was elected fellow 1524 ; went to Paris, and studied 
at the Sorbonne, a.d. 1527 ; signed the decree against the 
Pope's supremacy at Cambridge in 1534 ; became chaplain 
to Cranmer in 1537 ; master of his college, and chaplain 
to Henry VIII. in 1540 ; bishop of Rochester in 1547, and 
of London in 1550 ; was excepted from her amnesty by 
Queen Mary in 1553; sent, a.d. 1554, to hold a disputa- 
tion at Oxford ; and lastly was martyred there on Oct. 16, 
1555. 

Q. Ridley, in the visitation of his diocese, made certain 
regulations. By whom were they sanctioned ? 

A. He issued several orders against superstitious 
usages, and commanded that communion-tables should be 
substituted for altars. The council in the autumn con- 
firmed this regulation, a.d. 1550, and also forbade the 
practice of preaching on week-days, as it caused confusion 
by drawing away the people from their stated places of 
worship. 

Q. When was the first Liturgy of Edward VI. re- 
viewed? What foreigners are supposed to have given 
Cranmer their assistance ? Specify some of the principal 
additions and alterations introduced in the second book of 
Edward VI. 

A. In the year 1552, Cranmer, in addition to his 
other assistants, is said to have availed himself of the 
advice of the learned foreigners Bucer and Peter Martyr, 
the former of whom taught divinity at Cambridge, and the 
latter at Oxford. The additions and alterations were 
chiefly these : (l) The sentences, exhortation, confession, 
at the beginning of the morning and evening services, 
which in the former Prayer Book began with the Lord's 
Prayer, were added. The Litany was also ordered to be 
used on Sundays. (2) The decalogue was introduced into- 



262 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH [lECT. 

the communion-service ; the introit, the name of the virgin, 
the thanksgiving for the saints, the sign of the cross, and 
the invocation of the Word and Holy Ghost in the conse- 
cration of the elements, and the admixture of water with 
the wine, were omitted. The words at the presentation of 
the elements were only the latter part of those now in use ; 
" Take eat... thanksgiving," and " Drink this... thankful." 
A rubric also was added to explain the reason of kneeling 
at the sacrament. (3) The exorcising, anointing, the 
crisom, the trine immersion, and the previous consecration 
of the water, were omitted. (4) ^ In confirmation, the 
signing with the cross, and in matrimony both that and 
the giving of silver and gold, were omitted. (5) The 
allusion to Sarah and Tobias, the anointing, and the direc- 
tion about private confession, were omitted in the visitation 
of the sick ; prayers for the dead, and the administration 
of the communion at funerals, were also omitted from the 
burial service. (6) The rubric concerning dresses stood 
as follows : " And here it is to be noted, that the minister 
at the time of the communion, and at all other times in his 
ministration, shall use neither albe, vestment, nor cope ; 
but being archbishop or bishop, he shall have and wear a 
rochet; but being a priest or deacon, he shall have and 
wear a surplice only." (7) " The Form and Manner of 
Making and Consecrating Bishops, Priests, and Deacons," 
which had been drawn up a.d. 1550, with some altera- 
tions, was added. These alterations, which were declared 
to proceed from curiosity rather than any worthy cause, 
were ratified by Parliament. 

Q. Who first objected to the habits ? What was the 
result ? 

A, Hooper, when appointed to the see of Gloucester, 
a. d. 1550, refused to be consecrated in the episcopal habits; 
and although Cranmer and Ridley argued for, and Peter 
Martyr and Bucer recommended, conformity, yet he did not 
comply until the spring of the next year, and then only on 
condition that he should only wear them on public occasions. 



VIII 



DURING THE REIGN OF EDWARD VI. 263 



Q. Mention some of the bills relating to the Church 
which were passed by Parliament in the session of 1552. 

A. (l) The revised Common Prayer was confirmed, 
and ecclesiastical persons were directed to enforce attend- 
ance on the new service, under severe penalties. (2) Such 
holidays as were retained in the calendar were to be kept. 
Abstinence from flesh on fast-days, and the Fridays and 
Saturdays in Lent, was also to be enforced. (3) The 
marriage of the clergy was declared to be legal to all 
intents and purposes, and their children were enabled to 
inherit according to law. The act of 1549 had granted 
this privilege, but the prejudice against the married clergy 
was so great, that the people considered their offspring to 
be illegitimate. 

Q. What steps were taken in the reign of Edward 
VI. to reform the ecclesiastical laws ? 

A. Thirty-two commissioners, only four of whom 
were prelates, were appointed to revise them ; these were 
divided into four classes, each containing four lawyers and 
four ecclesiastics ; whose labours were facilitated by a sub- 
committee of eight persons, who digested and prepared the 
matter for the higher board. The chief part of what was 
done is considered to have been the work of Cranmer, 
but it was neither published, nor was any attempt made to 
pass it into a law. This book of canons was printed in the 
reign of Elizabeth, under the title of Reformatio Legum 
JEcclesiasticarum, but never possessed any authority. 

Q. By what authority and with what title were 
certain Articles of Religion established in the reign of 
Edward VI.? 

A. Although the power of appointing a committee 
for the formation of ecclesiastical laws had been granted to 
Henry VIII., yet it was never exercised. In the year 
1549 parliament conferred a similar power on Edward VI. 
to be in force foY three years. This committee was ap- 
pointed a.d. 1551, when " the archbishop was directed to 
draw up a book of Articles for preserving and maintaining 



264 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH [lECT. 

peace and unity of doctrine in the church; that being 
finished, they might be set forth by public authority." 
These Articles were first published a.d. 1533, and entitled 
" The Articles agreed upon by the bishops and other learned 
and godly men, in the last Convocation at London, in the 
year of our Lord mdlil, for to root out the discord of 
opinions, and stablish the agreement of true religion ; like- 
wise published by the King's Majesty's authority, 1553." 
They were forty-two in number ; but it has not been ascer- 
tained whether they received the sanction of the houses of 
convocation or not. 

Q. A Catechism is said to have been composed by 
Cranmer shortly after the accession of Edward VI. Give 
a short account of it. 

A. It was entitled " A short Instruction to Christian 
Religion, for the singular profit of Children and Young 
People." It is thought that it was originally written in 
Hio-h Dutch, and used at Nuremberg ; that Justus Jonas 
the elder, the friend of Luther, translated it into Latin, 
and that his son brought it into England a.d. 1548, after 
the publication of the "Interim." It was probably translated 
into English by some one of Cranmer's chaplains, but 
Cranmer affixed his own name to it, and in the title to 
the preface it is said to have been overseen and corrected 
by him. 

Q. State some particulars relating to a Catechism 
which was published subsequently to Cranmer's in the 
reign of Edward YI. 

A. "A Short Catechism, or Plain Instruction, con- 
taining the Sum of Christian Learning." It was originally 
published both in Latin and English, and contained the 
forty-two articles as an appendix. It is supposed to have 
been compiled by Poynet, bishop of Winchester, and was 
sanctioned by an injunction of the king, dated 20th May, 
1533. 

Q. In what manner were the clergy taxed by "Wil- 
liam I.? 



VIII.] DURING THE REIGX OF EDWARD VI. 265 

A. As he had converted the possessions of the pre- 
lates and great abbots into baronies, they were compelled 
to attend his parliaments, and either to send men or pay a 
tax to support the king's wars ; whereas the rest of the 
clergy continuing to hold their property by the Saxon 
tenure of francalmoigne, paid their contributions either as 
an impost granted for the use of the king, or of a benevo- 
lence levied by their bishops, without any express authority 
to do so. 

Q. State the nature of the alterations introduced by 
Edward I. into the previous mode of ecclesiastical legis- 
lation. 

A. When Edward I. divided the parliament into two 
houses, he intended to have added a third, composed of the 
clergy, in order that he might more easily obtain their 
subsidies. To avoid this the clergy, when summoned to 
assemble and to tax their spiritualities, replied that no 
temporal power had authority to compel them to do so ; it 
was then arranged that each archbishop, on receiving the 
king's writ, should order the clergy of his province to 
assemble in convocation. 

Q. To whom was the power of summoning the clergy 
to assemble entrusted in the reign of Edward I. ? 

A. The archbishops and bishops were summoned by 
the king to attend parliament as barons, and required to 
summon such a- portion of the inferior clergy as would 
represent the whole of that body, to accompany them ; the 
archbishop then summoned them to attend in convocation; 
but, to shew that the king's writ was no more than one 
motive for assembling, his summons generally appointed a 
different time and place for their meeting from that assigned 
by the king's writ, and sometimes he even summoned them 
without having received any writ whatever. When the 
assembly was thus got together the king demanded sup- 
plies, and by preferring the request owned the legality of 
then* mode of assembling. 
12 



266 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH [lECT. 

Q. Into what two bodies were the clergy divided, 
and of whom did members of their convocation consist ? 

A. They formed two distinct synods, i. e. of Canter- 
bury and York, which were summoned by the archbishops 
of their respective provinces, in which canons, binding upon 
their respective provinces, were made, and severally granted 
aids and taxes to the king. They met, in short, as parlia- 
ments, the archbishop presided as king, their suffragans 
and the mitred abbots sat as peers, and the deans, arch- 
deacons, and two proctors for each chapter, resembled the 
parliamentary members for boroughs ; while the proctors, 
for the inferior clergy of each diocese, represented the 
knights of the shire. The parliament, however, alleged 
that its laws were binding on the clergy ; and the con- 
vocation tax undoubtedly required its assent, before it 
could be enforced. 

Q. State the alterations which the act of submission 
(25 Henry VIII. c. 19) introduced into the constitution of 
the convocation. 

A. It determined, (l) That the king's assent was 
necessary for their meeting. (2) That the king's license 
was necessary even then before they could consult on the 
adoption of a canon. (3) That after a canon was consti- 
tuted, it could not be executed without the king's per- 
mission. (4) That even after the king's assent was given, 
it could only be executed under these four limitations : 
that it was not contrary to the royal prerogative, the com- 
mon law, the statute law, or any custom of the realm. 

Q. Up to what period did the clergy continue to tax 
themselves ? What rule was adopted subsequently to that 
time ? 

A. In the session of 13 Charles II. the clergy gave 
their last subsidy, it being then judged more expedient for 
them to continue the mode adopted by the Long Parliament 
of taxing them by way of land-tax and poll-tax. In the 
year 1664, Sheldon, archbishop of Canterbury, agreed 



VIII.] DURING THE REIGN OP EDWARD VI. 267 

with Clarendon and other ministers of the king, that the 
clergy should silently waive the privilege of taxing their 
own body, and permit themselves to be included in the 
money-bills of the house of commons ; and from that time 
they began to vote for knights of the shire, like other free- 
holders. The form of a convocation has however been 
kept up, and at the present time it is allowed that they 
are, as a matter of right, to be assembled concurrently 
with parliaments, and may act as provincial synods, when- 
ever the royal permission can be obtained. 



12—2 



268 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH TlECT. 



lecture IX. 

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF MARY I., 
FROM JULY 6, 1553, TO NOVEMBER 17, 1558. 



Q. What promise did Mary make at her accession 
with regard to religion ? 

A. She promised the Suffolk men, who assisted her 
against the Lady Jane Gray, that she would force no one's 
religion. This promise was publicly repeated before the 
council, on the 12th of August, and confirmed by a procla- 
mation on the 18th. 

Q. Mention some of the steps that were taken to 
restore the Roman Catholic religion soon after Mary's 
accession. 

A. Gardiner, the new chancellor, endeavoured to 
conduct the measures for the re-establishment of the papacy 
with moderation, but Bonner having resumed, on the 5th 
August, his see of London, and Bourn, one of his chaplains, 
having in a sermon at St Paul's spoken of Edward with 
harshness, a tumult was raised ; and in consequence, a pro- 
clamation was issued, prohibiting all ministers from preach- 
ing or writing, except such as obtained a special license 
from Gardiner. A commission was issued for setting aside 
the deprivations of the ejected bishops; the foreign Pro- 
testants were dismissed ; Cranmer, together with Latimer 
and several others, were sent to the Tower ; and Cardinal 
Pole was appointed the pope's legate for reconciling the 
kingdom to the see of Rome. 

Q. Recapitulate some of the leading enactments of 
the first parliament in the reign of Mary I. 

A. The parliament met on October 5, 1553 ; it con- 
firmed the marriage between Henry VIII. and Catherine ; 
it annulled the various acts for permitting lay communion 
in both kinds, for authorizing the first and second liturgies 



IX.] DURING THE REIGN OP MARY I. 269 

of Edward VI., for diminishing the number of festivals, 
and for allowing the marriage of priests ; it inflicted penal- 
ties upon all who interfered with the performance of any 
sacred function ; it included Cranmer in the act of at- 
tainder against Lady Jane Gray ; but, on account of its 
interfering in the marriage of the queen to Philip of Spain, 
it was soon afterwards dissolved. 

Q. How did the first convocation in the reign of 
Mary I. act ? 

A. Great care was taken that the proctors elected 
by the clergy should be favourable to the Romanist party, 
so that no opposition was offered to their subsequent acts, 
except by those who sat in right of their preferments. An 
act of parliament had previously repealed the statutes of 
Henry which rendered persons who joined in making 
canons, without first obtaining the royal consent, liable to a 
pra3munire. The convocation at once declared the Common 
Prayer and the Catechism to be heretical, because they 
contained a denial of transubstantiation ; six of the ex 
officio members attempted to hold a disputation against the 
tenet, but were finally silenced by clamour and force. 

Q. State briefly some of the methods adopted in the 
second year of Mary I. to annul the Reformation. 

A. In 1554 the bishops were enjoined to enforce the 
canons of Henry VIII. for the suppression and silencing of 
heretics, and the removal of the married clergy from their 
preferments. Several thousands of the clergy were thus 
harshly deprived, amongst whom were the archbishop of 
York, and the bishops of Bristol, Chester, and St David's. 
Three other bishops, those of Lincoln, Hereford, and Glou- 
cester, were degraded for holding erroneous doctrines, and 
their opposition to the established Church ; so that with 
these, and other casual vacancies, sixteen sees were at the 
disposal of the Romanists, who filled them up with zealous 
partisans of their own creed. On the 16th April, Cranmer, 
Ridley, and Latimer, were conveyed from the Tower to 
Oxford, where, after holding a disputation for three days 



270 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH [lECT. 

against selected opponents on the subject of the real pre- 
sence, they were declared heretics, and remanded to their 
former prison. On the arrival of Cardinal Pole as legate 
a plenary absolution was granted to the parliament, and 
the kingdom was formally reconciled to the Pope. 

Q. Mention one trait in the character of Queen 
Mary which distinguished her above all her successors on 
the English throne. 

A. She restored to the Church all its lands which 
the sacrilegious governments of the two preceding reigns 
had left at the royal disposal, and discharged the clergy 
from the payment of firstfruits and tenths. She also 
sanctioned the suspension of the mortmain act for twenty 
years, and used every endeavour to rescue the Church 
from the degradation into which it had fallen by reason 
of the rapacity, extortion, and sacrilege, of the successive 
political ministers of her father and brother. 

Q. Who was the protomartyr in the reign of Mary 
I.? 

A. Rogers, prebendary of St Paul's, and an eminent 
preacher. He was burnt on the 4th of February, 1555, 
for receiving the sacrament according to the liturgy of 
King Edward VI. 

Q. Mention some of the martyrs who suffered a.d. 
1555. 

A. 1. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, was consigned 
to the flames in that city on the 9th of February, 1555. 
He was condemned in London for having a wife, allowing 
a divorce and second marriage in case of fornication, and 
for denying the corporal presence in the sacrament. 2. 
Rowland Taylor, rector of Hadley in Suffolk. 3. Ferrar, 
bishop of St David's. 4. Ridley, bishop of London, and 
Latimer, formerly bishop of Worcester, suffered at Oxford 
on the 16th October. 

Q. When and upon what subjects was a disputation 
held at Oxford between Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, 
and the Romanists ? 



IX.] DURING THE REIGN OF MARY I. 271 

A. (l) Whether the natural body of Christ was 
really in the sacrament? (2) Whether any other sub- 
stance did remain after the words of consecration than the 
body of Christ ? (3) Whether in the mass there was a 
sacrifice and propitiation for the sins of the quick and dead ? 
Cranmer disputed on the 16th of April, 1554, Ridley on 
the 17th, and Latimer on the 18th. 

Q. Why was the execution of Cranmer deferred ? 

A. As Cranmer was a metropolitan, and had been 
consecrated according to the Romish rites, he was tried by 
a separate commission from the Pope, and since a part of 
the form consisted of a citation to appear at Rome within 
eighty days, the pronouncing of the sentence was delayed ; 
he was pronounced contumacious for non-appearance, al- 
though he had expressed his willingness to answer to the 
citation, if the queen would give him an opportunity by 
delivering him from prison. 

Q. Under what circumstances does Cranmer appear 
to have signed certain recantations ? 

A. He was taken from prison, and handsomely en- 
tertained by the dean of Christ's Church ; told that Philip 
and Mary desired his conversion above all things ; that 
the council was well disposed towards him ; that his learn- 
ing might be of great service to the Church, &c. ; till he 
was induced to sign his recantation. " To conceal this 
fault had been partiality ; to excuse it, flattery ; to defend 
it, impiety ; to insult over hint, cruelty ; to pity him, 
charity ; to be wary of ourselves in any like occasion, 
Christian discretion," are the words of Fuller when speaking 
of the subscription of Jewel, and have been applied to 
Cranmer. " His enemies now had him in the toils ; and, 
to add to his humiliation, a series of recantations is exacted 
of him, each rising above the other in its demands ; some 
perhaps of his own dictating ; the longest and most abject, 
apparently, the wordy composition of Pole ; and whilst 
these very instruments were in preparation, with a duplicity 
which is a fit consummation of the whole, secret orders 



272 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 



LECT. 



were given by the Queen to Dr Cole, Provost of Eton col- 
lege, to prepare the sermon, and it was not till the day 
before his execution, or even, perhaps, the morning of it, 
that the eyes of Cranmer were quite opened." (Blunt's 
Reformation, c. xii.) 

Q. Where and in what words did Cranmer revoke 
his recantation? 

A. In St Mary's Church, Oxford, he repeated this 
declaration — " And now I come to the great thing that 
troubleth my conscience more than any thing that ever I 
did or said in my whole life; and forasmuch as my hand 
offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand shall first 
be punished therefore ; for may I come to the fire, it shall 
be first burned." 

Q. How many persons are stated to have suffered 
martyrdom in the reign of Mary I. ? 

A. From the 4th of February, 1555, the day on 
which Rogers suffered, to the 10th November, 1558, on 
which the last five victims were burned at Canterbury, 227 
or 284 or 288 persons, according to different computations, 
perished in the flames. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to the English 
ecclesiastics who left England on the accession of Mary. 

A. As soon as it was ascertained that England under 
Mary, was not a safe dwelling for the Reformers, great 
numbers of them fled to Germany and Switzerland. On 
the 27th June, 1554, Whittingham, and three other re- 
fugees, arrived at Francfort with their families. The 
magistrates granted them the use of a church, provided 
they would sign the confession of faith of, and not quarrel 
concerning ceremonies with, a French congregation, who 
had fled there from Glastonbury, and to whom the church 
had been already assigned. After declining the adminis- 
tration of Bishop Scory, they determined to reject the use 
of the liturgy and surplice, and agreed not to make the 
responses aloud after the minister. Their service began 
with a general confession of sins, then succeeded a psalm, 



IX.] DURING THE REIGN OF MARY I. 273 

and next came a prayer offered by the officiating minister 
for the aid of the Holy Spirit ; then followed the sermon ; 
a general prayer for all states, especially for the English ; 
the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, another psalm ; and lastly, 
the benediction. Having settled this mode of worship, 
and temporarily appointed a minister and deacons, they 
invited their scattered brethren to join them, and com- 
menced their service on the 29th July, 1554. 

Q. How did the rest of the English exiles under 
Mary I. receive the modified church-polity established at 
Francfort ? 

A. As the Francfort divines had stated in their 
circular that their service was more scriptural than that 
of Edward VI., Knox from Geneva, Haddon from Stras- 
burg, and Lever from Zurich, consented to become their 
ministers ; but the great body of exiles at Strasburg re- 
quired them to conform to the second liturgy of Edward 
VI., before they would join them ; they consented to omit 
the litany and responses ; this was deemed unsatisfactory ; 
the Francfort party appealed to Calvin ; he asserted that 
since the Reformation was transferred from England they 
ought to take the opportunity of instituting a more pure 
service ; they then agreed to use a modification of the 
English liturgy until April 1555, and then if any further 
contention arose, to refer the question to Calvin, Martyr, 
and Bulhnger. On the 13th of March, 1555, however, 
Cox, formerly tutor of Edward VI., arrived at Francfort 
with several other exiles, and at once repeated the 
responses aloud. On the Sunday following one of Cox's 
friends officiated, and read the litany, and a sharp contro- 
versy arose ; but as they had been admitted to have a 
voice in the congregation, and their party now constituted 
a majority, they soon prohibited Knox from interfering 
with the congregation. 

Q. Under what circumstances was an English con- 
gregation established at Geneva in the reign of Mary I. ? 

A. After Knox and his party had been prohibited 

12—5 



274 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH [lECT. 

from establishing their own mode of service at Francfort, 
and Knox, from having, given offence to the Emperor, was 
ordered by the magistrates to leave the city, March 25, 

1556, he repaired to Geneva, where he was joined by 
Whittingham, Fox, Cole, and others ; and it was agreed, 
after some debate, to adopt Calvin's model, and reject the 
English ritual altogether. By this arrangement the minis- 
ters were to act in conjunction with lay elders in ordering 
the Church; the deacons were mere laymen, whose office 
it was to distribute the alms ; the elders might dismiss a 
minister who did not preach according to their taste ; a 
weekly congregation, in which any one might speak, was 
held for the exposition of difficult passages in scripture ; 
extemporary prayers were authorized ; all prayers at 
burials were prohibited ; private baptism was prohibited ; 
the eucharist was to be administered only once a month ; 
excommunication could not be pronounced without obtain- 
ing the consent of the people, and even then the culprit 
might hear sermons. 

Q. How was the Church at Francfort settled after 
the departure of Knox. ? 

A. A superintendent, two clergymen as elders, and 
four deacons were appointed ; and in the following year, 

1557, Cox appointed Horn to the pastoral charge; but 
when a layman, named Ashley, appealed from a decision, of 
Horn and the elders to the whole congregation, and the 
latter determined that they had the jurisdiction, the church- 
officers resigned, and Horn quitted the place. 



X.] DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 275 



Sertttre X. 

THE ENGLISH CHURCH DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH, 
17 NOV. 1558—1603. 



Q. Mention some of the events affecting the Church 
which occurred immediately after the accession of Elizabeth, 
in 1558. 

A. The Marian persecution was first put a stop to, 
and steps taken to revise the liturgy of Edward VI. To 
prevent the disorders which arose from the abuse of the 
pulpit by the partizans of both the reforming and popish 
parties, a proclamation was issued, in accordance with 
former precedents, on the 27th of December, which pro- 
hibited all preaching and teaching, and the introduction of 
all innovations, beyond the reading in English of the Epistle, 
Gospel, Lord's Prayer, Creed, and Litany. On the 15th 
of January, 1559, Oglethorpe, bishop of Carlisle, crowned 
the Queen in the manner prescribed by the Roman ponti- 
fical, and the parliament and convocation met in the course 
of the same month. 

Q. Detail briefly some of the acts of the first parlia- 
ment of Elizabeth. 

A. An act was passed, notwithstanding the opposition 
of the bishops, for granting to the crown those firstfruits, 
and tenths, and parsonages impropriate, which Mary had 
restored to the Church. By the act of supremacy the 
sovereign was declared the supreme governor (not head) 
of the Church, and empowered to nominate commissioners 
for the decision of ecclesiastical causes. By the Act of 
L T niformity it was provided that the second service-book of 
Edward VI. , as altered by the committee of divines, which 
had been appointed for that purpose, should be used in all 
places of public worship, after the next ensuing festival of 
St John the Baptist. Other acts empowered the Queen 



276 THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

to reserve for her own use, during the vacancy of any see, 
its landed estates, and to give an equivalent by the grant 
of such impropriations and tenths as had been vested in 
the crown ; to suppress monastic establishments, and to 
appropriate their revenues ; to make statutes for ecclesias- 
tical and scholastic foundations ; and lastly, the episcopal 
deprivations made in the reign of Edward VI. were de- 
clared valid, in order that the acts of the succeeding 
bishops with regard to leases might be legalized. 

Q. How did the English prelates act when the oath 
of supremacy was tendered to them in the reign of Eliza- 
beth '? What treatment did they experience at a sub- 
sequent period? 

A. They all, except Kitchin, bishop of Llandaff, 
refused to take the oath, and were deprived for their 
contumacy. Heath, archbishop of York, spent the rest 
of his life on his own estate at Cobham, in Surrey ; Bon- 
ner, bishop of London, was confined to the Marshalsea 
prison, to protect him from the public indignation ; and the 
others were either provided for, or allowed to enjoy their 
own property in quiet. 

Q. Give a brief account of the successor of Pole in 
the archbishopric of Canterbury. 

A. Matthew Parker was born at Norwich, a.d. 1504. 
He was educated at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, of 
which society be became fellow a.d. 1527. On the re- 
commendation of Cranmer he was made chaplain to Anne 
Boleyn, who procured for him, a.d. 1535, the deanery of 
Stoke-college, near Clare, in Suffolk. He subsequently 
(a.d. 1541) became master of Corpus Christi college, Cam- 
bridge, prebend of Ely, and dean of Lincoln. He was 
deprived of his preferments in the reign of Mary. On 
the 17th December he was consecrated at Lambeth arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, by Barlow, late bishop of Bath and 
"Wells, then elect of Chichester ; John Scory, late bishop 
of Chichester, then elect of Hereford ; Miles Coverdale, 
late bishop of Exeter ; and John Hoclgkins, suffragan bishop 



X.] DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 277 

of Bedford ; the ceremony being performed according to 
King Edward's ordinal. He died a.d. 1575. 

Q. A strange mode of attacking the validity of 
English ordinations was adopted by the Jesuits at the 
beginning of the seventeenth century. State some of the 
particulars. 

A. A Jesuit named Holywood published a work in 
1604, in which he denied that Parker and the other 
bishops, his contemporaries, ever received episcopal ordi- 
nation according to any ritual whatever. He affirmed 
that they met at the Nag's Head, in Cheapside, where 
Scory merely laid a bible on the head of each of them as 
they knelt, and said " Receive power to preach the Word 
of God sincerely." This story was propagated by the 
Jesuits, but no Romanist of any character maintains its 
truth, as the documents which are now admitted by all 
parties to be genuine, in which all the facts as to Parker's 
consecration are still extant, and the Earl of Nottingham, 
who was present in the chapel at Lambeth, contradicted 
the assertion at the time Holywood made it. It is possible 
that the official dinner given on such occasions might have 
been held at the Nag's Head. 

Q. Specify some of the alterations introduced into the 
Liturgy at the review in the first year of Queen Elizabeth's 
reign, a.d. 1559—1560. 

A. The Act of Uniformity commanded the second book 
of Edward VI. to be used, " with one alteration or addition 
of certain lessons to be used on every Sunday in the year, 
and the form of the Litany altered and corrected, and two 
sentences added in the delivery of the sacrament to the 
communicants, and none other, or otherwise." The alter- 
ation in the Litany consisted in omitting the petition to 
be delivered " from the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome, 
and all his detestable enormities," which was a part of the 
last deprecation in both the books of Edward ; and the 
adding the following words to the petition for the Queen, 
" strengthen in the true worshipping of thee, in righteous- 



278 THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

ness and holiness of life." In the communion, to the 
words in the first book of Edward VI. 1549, " the body 
of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, pre- 
serve thy body and soul unto everlasting life," were 
added, " take and eat this, in remembrance that Christ 
died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with 
thanksgiving," taken from the second of Edward VI. 1552 ; 
and the two clauses thus combined by the conjunction 
"and" are still in use. The same was done bv uniting 
the two sentences used in presenting the cup. To " the 
blood, &c." in the first book, was adcled, " drink, &c." in 
the second book of Edward VI. The first rubric con- 
cerning the situation of the chancel and the proper place 
of reading divine service was altered ; i. e. the rubric of 
the second book, " The Morning and Evening Prayer shall 
be used in such place of the church, chapel, or chancel, 
and the minister shall so turn him as the people may best 
hear. And if there be any controversy therein, the matter 
shall be referred to the Ordinary, and he or his deputy 
shall appoint the place ;" was changed into the present 
rubric, " in the accustomed place of the church, chapel, or 
chancel ; except it shall be otherwise determined by the 
ordinary of the place." The habits enjoined in the first 
book, and forbid by the second, were restored. The 
clause in the Act of Uniformity is this, " such ornaments 
of the church, and of the ministers thereof, shall be re- 
tained and be used, as was in this Church of England by 
authority of parliament, in the second year of the reign of 
Edward VI., until order shall be taken by the authority of 
the Queen's Majesty." At the end of the Litany was 
added the prayers for the Queen and the Clergy, which 
now stand at the end of the Morning and Evening Service. 
And lastly, the rubric that was added to the end of the 
Communion-office, in the second book, to guard against the 
notion of our Lord's body being really and essentially 
present in the consecrated elements, was left out alto- 
gether. 



X.] DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 279 

Q. How did the act of supremacy of Elizabeth guard 
against the objections that she was assuming a priestly 
character ? 

A. By declaring " that the Queen's Highness is the 
only supreme governor of this realm, and all other her 
Highness's dominions and countries, as well in spiritual 
and ecclesiastical causes as temporal." 

Q. An eminent scholar was appointed to a bishopric 
soon after the consecration of Parker. Mention some par- 
ticulars relating to him. 

A. John Jewel, consecrated bishop of Salisbury on 
the 21st of January, 1560, was born in Devonshire, on 
the 22nd of May, 1522. He was admitted at Merton 
college, Oxford, a.d. 1535; took his bachelor's degree in 
1540 ; became a fellow of Corpus Christi college, Oxford, 
where he enjoyed a great reputation as a tutor and 
lecturer, until he was expelled from his college, on the 
grounds " that he had been a constant attendant on the 
lectures of Peter Martyr ; that he himself was a preacher of 
heresy ; that he had been ordained not according to the 
ancient ritual ; and lastly, that he had refused to be present 
at the mass." In 1554 he acted as notary in behalf of 
Cranmer and of Ridley ; but shortly afterwards, on pain 
of martyrdom, subscribed a paper which contained the 
essential doctrines of Romanism — " he became an apos- 
tate" — in 1555 he fled to Francfort, where he abjured 
his recantation, and was kindly received by Peter Martyr, 
at Strasburg. Shortly after the accession of Elizabeth he 
became Bishop of Salisbury. In 1562 he published his 
•' Apology for the Church of England," at first in Latin, 
with the consent of the bishops and other divines, and the 
sanction of the Queen's authority ; and in 1564 it was 
translated into English. His " Defence of the Apology," 
against Harding, the Jesuit, which contained the Apology 
itself, together with Harding's Confutation, and Jewel's 
Reply, all in a single volume, and arranged in paragraphs 



280 THE ENGLISH CHURCH 



LECT. 



over against each other, was set up in the churches in 
1572, the year after his death. 

Q. Specify succinctly the alterations that were intro- 
duced into, and finally sanctioned in, " The Articles of 
Religion," during the reign of Elizabeth. 

A. Archbishop Parker, a.d. 1562, prepared a copy 
of the forty-two Articles of Edward VI., in which he 
omitted the 10th, 16th, 19th, and 41st; he introduced the 
present 5th, 12th, 29th, and 30th ; and altered seventeen 
of the others. He then submitted it to the convocation 
which met on the 11th of January, 1563, when they ex- 
punged the 40th, 41st, and 42nd, and altered six others. 
When they were printed, the 29th also was omitted. 
These thirty-eight articles being thus drawn up, both in 
Latin and English, were signed by both houses of convo- 
cation ; by the upper on the 29th of January, and the 
lower on the 5th of February, 1563. In the year 1566 
an act requiring the clergy to subscribe these Articles 
passed the Commons; but the Queen stopped it in the 
House of Lords. In 1571 these Articles were again re- 
viewed, the 29th was again inserted, and the whole thirty- 
nine ratified, as stated at the end of the Articles in our 
present Common Prayer Books. An act was then passed 
" For Ministers of the Church to be of sound Religion," 
which enjoined subscription before the bishop, by all in- 
cumbents who had been questionably ordained, of such of 
the Articles of 1562 as " only concern the profession of the 
true Christian faith, and the doctrine of the sacraments." 

Q. When was the second book of the Homilies pro- 
mulgated ? 

A. In the year 1563. Parker and Jewel are con- 
sidered to be their chief authors ; but there is reason for 
supposing that some progress had been made in their 
composition in the reign of Edward VI. 

Q. Explain what is meant by the Advertisements 
which appeared in the early part of Elizabeth's reign. 



X.] DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 281 

A. They were a set of canons for enforcing uniformity, 
printed and published by the ecclesiastical commissioners in 
1655, but without the royal authority. They aimed at 
enforcing uniformity of " doctrine and preaching ; adminis- 
tration of prayer and sacraments ; certain orders in eccle- 
siastical policy ; outward apparel of persons ecclesiastical ; 
and promises to be made by those entering on any eccle- 
siastical office." {Sparrow's Coll. 121.) 

Q. " Here was the first era or date of the separa- 
tion." JNeale's Puritans, Yol. i. p. 230. Explain this. 

A. When the Queen's proclamation authorized the 
Advertisements (see last question), the bishops were called 
upon to enforce conformity, and all the London clergy 
who did not comply within three months were ipso facto 
deprived of their preferments. In the beginning of the 
next year the nonconformists began to hold separate 
assemblies, and determined to adopt the Geneva discipline 
altogether ; their leaders, however, consisted only of six 
or seven ministers of the diocese of London. In 1567, one 
of their assemblies, held at Plumber's hall, was forcibly dis- 
persed, and several of the party imprisoned. In fact, the 
Puritans were now divided into two parties ; one party 
continuing to hold their opinions, but refusing to separate ; 
the other, the separatists, or presbyterians, who objected 
to the very fundamental constitution of the Church. 

Q. The Puritans availed themselves of a papal dis- 
pensation for preaching. Under what circumstances was 
it used? 

A. George Withers, a popular preacher at Bury, in 
Suffolk, waged, in Cambridge, a crusade against stained 
glass windows, the corner cap, and the surplice. When 
called up to Lambeth, to answer for his nonconformity, 
and asked for his license, he pleaded, that while Bishop 
Fisher was chancellor, Pope Alexander YI. had granted 
the privilege to the university of sending twelve graduates 
to preach in any part of the British isles, without first 
obtaining the sanction of the bishops of the respective 



282 THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

dioceses. Parker allowed the plea, but suspended him on 
the ground that the license was not countersigned by the 
Chancellor Cecil. 

Q. Who was the leader of the nonconformist party 
in Cambridge? Give some account of his subsequent 
conduct. 

A. Thomas Cartwright. He was born in Hertford- 
shire, in 1535, and entered at St John's college in 1550. 
He retired from the university during Mary's reign ; but 
in 1563 he was elected fellow of Trinity, of which college 
Whitgift was the head ; in 1564 hev was selected to dis- 
pute before Elizabeth, and shortly afterwards retired abroad, 
where he appears to have imbibed the German principles. 
On his return he declared against every ecclesiastical name 
and office whatever, which was not sanctioned, according 
to the Genevan interpretation, by the New Testament. 
He became the leader of the disciplinarian Puritans. In 
1570 he was elected Lady Margaret's Professor, and de- 
livered lectures in accordance with his opinions ; and was 
shortly afterwards ejected from all his preferments, and 
expelled from the university. He then again retired to 
the continent. 

Q. Explain what was meant by the 'prophesying s in 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. When and how were they 
abolished ? 

A. From the mention made by St Paul, 1 Cor. xiv. 
31, of prophesying one by one, a hint was taken that 
meetings of the clergy for mutual improvement might be 
held, in which scripture might be expounded and debated. 
These prophesyings were patronized by several bishops, 
and generally conducted in the following manner. The 
dioceses being divided into districts, the clergy assembled 
at convenient places in each, about once in a fortnight. 
After the meeting had been opened with prayer, a modera- 
tor, nominated by the bishop or archdeacon, or the rural 
dean himself, appointed the speakers to discuss the question ; 
but as some disorders arose by the nocking together of the 



X.] DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 288 

laity to these meetings, which were held in churches, and by 
their giving expressions to their feelings, Queen Elizabeth, 
fearing that this might lead to the propagation of opinions 
unfavourable to her supremacy, ordered Archbishop Grin- 
dal, the successor of Parker, to put them down, a.d. 1576, 

Q. What was the character of Grindal, Archbishop 
Parker's successor ? How was he treated by Elizabeth ? 

A. He succeeded Parker a.d. 1576. He was of a 
mild disposition, rather disposed to relax the reins of 
discipline, and never deprived any nonconformist, except 
in very extreme cases. As he refused to suppress the 
prophesyings, Elizabeth deprived hint for a time, and he 
never regained her confidence. He died in 1583, and was 
succeeded by Whitgift. 

Q. What answer did the English ambassador at Rome 
receive when he announced the accession of Elizabeth ? 

A. When Pope Paul IV., a.d. 1555—1559, was 
informed of it, and of her determination not to molest any 
one on account of his religion, he replied, " I cannot ap- 
prove this change in your government, made, as it is, 
without authority from the apostolical see, in favour of one 
illegitimately born ; nevertheless, if the cause be referred 
to me, I shall decide upon it in the most favourable manner 
possible." 

Q. . Mention the steps taken by Pope Pius IV. to 
recover the papal influence in England. 

A. Pius IV. (a.d. 1559—1566), in the year 1560 
despatched a messenger with a conciliatory letter, in which 
it is said he engaged to recognize Elizabeth's legitimacy, 
and also to sanction the English service-book, on condition 
that she would acknowledge his supremacy. This offer, 
and also an invitation in the year following to send repre- 
sentatives to the Council of Trent, were both declined. 

Q. For what period did the papists in England con- 
form ? When and why did they separate ? 

A. During the first five years of Elizabeth's reign 
they conformed, and even during the next five years they 



284 THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 

only partially absented themselves from the service ; but 
when Pius V. in 1569, released them from their allegiance 
by his bull of excommunication, and one Felton affixed it 
to the gates of the palace of the Bishop of London, they 
seceded from the communion of the Church. 

Q. Mention the precautions which Elizabeth adopted 
to guard against the treasons of the papists. 

A. Three acts were passed in 1571. The first 
rendered it treason to affirm that Elizabeth was not the 
lawful sovereign, or that any other person had a superior 
claim ; that she was a heretic, schismatic, or infidel ; or 
that the law was not sufficient to grant a right to the 
crown. The second was against bringing in or executing 
any decrees from, or proposing a formal reconciliation with, 
Rome. The third forfeited the property of fugitives ; but 
in case of their good behaviour their families were pro- 
vided for ; and peers were to be summoned by letters 
under the privy seal, before the act was to be enforced. 

Note : — These laws were not enforced until the papists began 
a systematic series of treasons, by sending seminary priests and 
other agents to endeavour to dethrone Elizabeth, and place Mary 
of Scotland on the throne. Persons, Campian, and Allen, were 
their chief leaders. 

Q. A theological question was mooted in England 
towards the end of the sixteenth century. How was it 
settled ? 

A. It arose at Cambridge, a.d. 1595, on the subject 
of the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, and was the 
cause of the nine Lambeth Articles being drawn up ; the 
first of which was this, " God from eternity hath pre- 
destinated certain men unto life; certain men he hath 
reprobated;" they of course were never adopted by the 
Church. 

Q. The objections of the Puritans relative to church- 
discipline were combated by a divine who flourished about 
the end of the sixteenth century. Who was he ? What 
work did he write ? 



X.] DURING THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 285 

A. " The judicious Hooker." He was born near 
Exeter, a.d. 1554, and was educated at Corpus Christi 
college, Oxford. Whitgift appointed him Master of the 
Temple, a.d. 1585, and about 1600, in consequence of his 
contest with Travers, he published his celebrated work 
entitled "The Ecclesiastical Polity." 

Q. State the principles which Hooker lays down in his 
Ecclesiastical Polity. 

A. (l) The scripture, though the only standard and law of 
doctrine, is not a rule for discipline. (2) The practice of the 
Apostles, as they acted according to circumstances, is not an 
invariable rule for the Church. (3) Many things are left in- 
different, and may be done without, although not expressly 
directed in, scripture. (4) The Church, like other societies, may 
make laws for her own government, provided they interfere not 
with scripture. (5) Human authority may interpose where the 
scripture is silent. (6) Hence the Church may appoint cere- 
monies within the limits of the scriptures. (7) All born within 
the district of an established Church ought to submit to it : the 
Church is their mother, and hath a maternal power over them. 
(8) The laws of the Church not being moral, are mutable, and 
may be changed according to the wall of its directors. 



286 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [lECT. 



Hertttrt XL 

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH DURING THE REIGNS OF JAMES I., 
A.D. 1603—1625, AND CHARLES I., A.D. 1625—1649. WITH A SKETCH 
OF THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND 

TO 1649. 



Q. Describe briefly the mode in which the Puritans 
laid their grievances before James I. Under what heads 
did they class them? ^ 

A. They drew up a paper called the "■ Millenary 
Petition," from its professing to be signed by a thousand 
beneficed clergymen, but which was in fact only signed by 
750, in which " neither as factious men, affecting a popular 
parity in the Church, nor as schismatics, aiming at the 
dissolution of the state ecclesiastical," they made "humble 
suit, that of these offences following, some may be re- 
moved, some amended, some qualified : I. In the Church 
service. That the cross in baptism, interrogatories ministered 
to infants, and confirmations, as superfluous, may be taken 
away. Baptism not to be ministered by women, and so 
explained. The cap and surplice not urged. That exami- 
nation may go before communion : that it be ministered with 
a sermon. That divers terms of priests and absolution, 
and some other used, with the ring in marriage, and other 
such like in the book, may be corrected ... No ministers 
charged to teach their people to bow at the name of Jesus. 
That the canonical scriptures only be read in the Church." 
II. " Concerning Church ministers. That none hereafter be 
admitted into the ministry," except preaching ministers. 
" That non-residency be not permitted. That ministers 
be not urged to subscribe but according to the law, to the 
articles of religion, and the King's supremacy only." III. 
" For Church-living and maintenance. That bishops leave 
their commendams." That pluralities be abolished. That 
impropriations annexed to bishoprics and colleges be re- 



XI.] DURING THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 287 

stored to the incumbents at the old rent ; and if in the 
possession of laymen, a sixth or seventh be restored. IV. 
For Church-discipline. That no one should be excom- 
municated by a layman, nor without his pastor's consent. 
That the ecclesiastical courts, &c. be reformed. " That 
the oath ex officio, whereby men are forced to accuse 
themselves, be more sparingly used. That licenses for mar- 
riage, without banns asked, be more cautiously granted." 

Q. How did King James answer the Millenary 
Petition ? Under what heads did the Puritans digest their 
grievances ? 

Q. By holding a conference between the two parties 
at Hampton Court, in January 1603 — 1604. The Puri- 
tans digested all their objections under these four heads : 
(l) That the doctrine of the Church might be preserved 
in purity. (2) That good pastors might be planted in all 
churches. (3) That the Church-government might be 
sincerely administered. (4) That the Book of Common 
Prayer might be fitted to more increase of piety. 

Q. Specify those alterations in the Articles which 
were proposed at the Hampton-Court Conference. 

A. In order to render the doctrine of final perse- 
verance more consistent with that of predestination than 
it was in the sixteenth and seventeenth articles, it was pro- 
posed to introduce in the sixteenth the words, " yet not 
totally or finally, 1 ' immediately after the words, " after we 
have received the Holy Ghost we may depart from grace ;" 
and that the Lambeth Articles should be incorporated with 
the text of the thirty-nine. It was objected that as the 
twenty-third article specifically prohibited a layman from 
preaching "in the congregation," that he was authorized 
to preach out of it ; that the twenty-fifth called confirma- 
tion a corrupt following of the Apostles ; that in the 
thirty-seventh the words " that he ought not to have any," 
ought to follow the assertion, " that the Bishop of Rome 
hath no authority in this land ;" but none of these pro- 
posals were accepted. 



288 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH [LECT. 

Q. What two important points were conceded at the 
Hampton Conference ? Mention two changes made in the 
Common Prayer. 

A. (1) As Nowell's catechism was considered too 
long, and that in the Prayer Book too brief, the expla- 
nation of the sacraments, now in use, was added. (2) A 
revised translation of the Bishops' Bible was undertaken 
and completed a.d. 1611. The Forms of Thanksgiving 
at the end of the Litany were added ; and the words 
laivful minister were inserted in the rubric at the be- 
ginning of the Office for Private Baptism. 

Q. How was the canon law settled by the convocation 
in 1603 ? What was its previous, and what is its present 
state ? 

A. The only canons now in use were then adopted. 
By the statute of the 25th Henry VIII. it was ordered that 
the ancient canons should remain in force, provided they 
were not repugnant to the common law, nor the King's 
prerogative. Attempts at a revision were made under 
Edward VI. and Elizabeth, but nothing was effected. The 
canons of 1603 not having been confirmed by parliament, 
are only binding on the laity so far as they are declaratory 
of older canons, which are a part of the law of the land ; 
nevertheless, the clergy, in consequence of their subscrip- 
tion, are bound by canons confirmed by the King only. 

Q. Who were the three successors of Whitgift as 
archbishop of Canterbury ? 

A. (l) Bancroft, a.d. 1604—1610; (2) Abbot, 
a.d. 1610 — 1633; (3) Laud, a.d. 1633 — 1645. 

Q. How did Bancroft and Abbot respectively enforce 
conformity ? 

A. Under Bancroft those who complied with the new 
canons were unmolested; those who hesitated were ad- 
monished ; and those who opposed them were deprived. 
Abbot never advanced a step further than he was compelled, 
and turned a deaf ear to all complaints against noncon- 
forming ministers. 



XI.] DURING THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 289 

Q. Name four distinct parties who were at this time 
included under the name of Puritans. 

A. (l) The original, or moderate Puritans, who 
merely objected to some of the ceremonies. (2) The 
rigid Presbyterians, who were increased daily by the court 
viewing all as enemies whose sentiments were opposed to 
their own. (3) The Brownists, or Independents, who 
sprung up about 1583, but most of them had emigrated. 
(4) The political Puritans, who were the most numerous 
party, and opposed the crown on the question of the 
prerogative. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to the early 
life of Laud. 

A. He was born a.d. 1573; went to Oxford in 
1590 ; and in 1611 became President of St John's college. 
In 1616 he was appointed Dean of Gloucester, where he 
carried out his views of conformity by removing the com- 
munion table into the chancel. In 1621 he was consecrated 
Bishop of St David's, in which diocese he strictly enforced 
conformity ; he afterwards became Bishop of Bath and 
Wells, and subsequently Bishop of London, a.d. 1628, in 
both of which dioceses he rigidly enforced a compliance 
with his directions. 

Q. What act of James I. has been much censured ? 

A. His Book of Sports, which by encouraging (in 
a.d. 1618) the desecration of the Sabbath, gave great 
offence to the Puritans. 

Q. Why were certain laws made in the early part 
of the reign of James I. against the Roman Catholics ? 
Mention some of their enactments. 

A. The Papists being disappointed in their expecta- 
tions of increased toleration under the son of Mary of 
Scotland, entered iDto a conspiracy, well known as the 
Gunpowder Plot (Nov. 5, 1605). Four Jesuits, Garnett, 
Oldcorn, Gerard, and Grenway, of whom the two former 
were executed, were implicated in it. Certain statutes 
were then passed, by which they were obliged to receive 
13 



290 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH 



LECT. 



the sacrament once a year, under a penalty of twenty 
pounds ; whilst they continued recusants, they were liable 
to forfeit two-thirds of their income, &c. They were 
disabled from holding any offices, or practising any pro 
fession, &c. ; and lastly, were called upon to take the oath 
of allegiance, in which they declared their detestation of 
the doctrine, " that princes excommunicated by the Pope 
may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, &c," which 
Pope Paul V. (1615 — 1621) declared could not be taken 
by them, without a grievous wronging of God's honour. 
These laws were executed at first with great rigour, but 
towards the end of his reign James treated them with 
greater lenity. 

Q. A celebrated foreign synod was held in the reign 
of James I. ; what articles were debated in it ? Was the 
English Church represented there ? 

A. The Synod of Dort, held a.d. 1618—1619 ; to 
which James, of his own authority only, without consulting 
the Church, sent four representatives. The five heads of 
difference between the parties were : (l) on predestination 
and election ; (2) on the death of Christ, and the redemption 
obtained thereby ; (3) on human corruption ; (4) on con- 
version to God, and the method of it ; (5) on the final 
perseverance of the saints. After a great deal of unseemly 
discussion, and unjust conduct towards their opponents, the 
Calvinistic party prevailed over that of the Arminians. 

Q. Briefly notice the leading events affecting the 
Church which occurred in the early part of the reign of 
Charles I. a.d. 1625—1638. 

A. Laud, bishop of Bath and Wells, offended the 
Puritans, by instigating the king to enjoin the bishops to 
stir up the people to contribute to his carrying on a war 
in behalf of the King of Denmark. A dispute also arose 
between the king and the House of Commons with regard 
to Montague, canon of Windsor, who had broached some 
papistical doctrines, and Brackley, who, in an assize sermon 
at Northampton, asserted that the royal prerogative was 



XI.] DURING THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. 291 

unlimited. In 1628 Laud was made bishop of London, 
and, in conjunction with Wren of Norwich, and Pierce of 
Bath and Wells, irritated the Puritans by insisting on the 
communion tables being placed in the chancels. A contest 
also having arisen between the Arminian and Calvinistic 
clergy, the king issued a declaration prohibiting the dis- 
cussion of the controverted points in sermons ; ordered the 
afternoon lectures to be superseded by catechising ; that 
the lecturers officiate in the surplice and hood, and preach 
in gowns ; and that each bishop should give an annual 
account of his diocese to the king. Leighton, a presby- 
terian, for styling the bishops " men of blood, prelacy 
antichristian and satanical, &c.," was sentenced to be fined 
one thousand pounds, to lose his ears, and to be confined 
for life ; Sherfield, recorder of Salisbury, was fined five 
hundred pounds by the Star-chamber, for removing a stained 
window from St Edmund's church, New Sarum ; and in 
1632, Prynne, for writing the " Histrio-Mastic," which 
was supposed to be a libel on the queen, was also sentenced 
to lose his ears, and to be imprisoned. In 1633 Laud, 
who was blamed for all these severities, and who had given 
offence by using some popish ceremonies in consecrating a 
church, succeeded Abbot, at Canterbury. Soon afterwards, 
a great ferment was created by reviving King James's 
Book of Sports, and ordering it to be published in all 
parish-churches. In 1637, Prynne, Burton, and Bastwiek. 
who had already been punished for their publications, were 
again sentenced to still severer punishments, for writing 
scurrilous pamphlets. 

Q. What were the Star-chamber and the Court of 
High Commission? 

A. " The Star-chamber was a court of very ancient 
original, but new modelled by statutes 3 Hen. VII. ch. i., 
and 21 Hen. VIII. ch. xx., consisting of divers lords, &c. ; 
without the intervention of any jury. Their jurisdiction 
extended legally over riots, &c. ;" but afterwards became 
a court bv which the liberty of the subject was all but 

13—2 



292 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND [lECT. 

annihilated. The Court of High Commission was authorized 
by the act of supremacy, and during the reign of Elizabeth 
had become oppressive ; but when the laity were involved 
in the contest on ceremonies, it became, in many dioceses, 
a source of great tyranny, and raised up enemies against 
the Church. 



Q. Give a short review of the state of ecclesiastical 
affairs in Scotland, from the twelfth century to a.d. 1638. 

A. About the middle of the twelfth century a contest 
arose between the English and Scotch Churches, as to the 
Metropolitan jurisdiction claimed by the Archbishop of 
York, which was at length settled by the Pope's declaring 
Scotland to be under his own immediate protection. In 
the year 1217 the Pope put the whole kingdom of Scot- 
land under an edict, because the king had invaded England 
after John had surrendered his crown to the holy see. 
The government of the Scottish Church was not again 
altered until the see of St Andrew's was erected into an 
archbishopric, and its holder declared to be the primate ; 
shortly afterwards, a.d. 1491, Glasgow was also created 
an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over Galloway, Argyle, 
and the isles. In the year 1528, Patrick Hamilton, abbot 
of Fearn, who had studied at Wittemberg under Luther 
and Melancthon, was accused before the Scottish hierarchy 
of holding twelve heretical doctrines, of which the last was, 
" That the Pope was Antichrist, and that every priest had 
as much power as the Pope," and was burnt before the 
gate of St Andrew's college ; immediately afterwards, a 
Dominican friar, named Seton, and in the year 1534, Alex- 
ander Aless, and others, were compelled to take refuge in 
England, for holding the doctrines of the Reformation. 
Cardinal Beaton having, in 1538, succeeded his uncle in 
the archbishopric of St Andrew's, took strong measures for 
the repression of heresy, and executed Wishart, a powerful 
advocate of the Reformation, in 1546 ; the Cardinal him- 



XI.] TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. 293 

self, however, was shortly afterwards, in revenge for his 
cruelty, assassinated. Knox, who had embraced the doc- 
trines of the Reformation about 1540, and in the year 
1547 joined the party of the murderers of Beaton, who 
had possession of St Andrew^s, being then in his 42nd 
year, in defiance of the Church gathered together a con- 
gregation of his own ; but, on the surrender of the castle, he 
was carried prisoner into France, and detained there until 
1550, at which period he passed over into England, and 
remained there until he retired to Geneva, soon after the 
accession of Mary, in 1553 ; he next went to Francfort, 
but was expelled from that place in 1555, and appears to 
have passed through Geneva on his journey to Scotland, 
where he forwarded the destruction of the papacy ; in July 
1556 he returned to the continent, but was in the following 
year recalled by his party. He only proceeded as far as 
Dieppe, from whence he wrote to them, and, in conse- 
quence of his exhortations, they drew up and subscribed at 
Edinburgh, on the 3rd of December, 1557, a bond of mutual 
union and defence, in which they engaged to stand by one 
another in the maintenance of " faithful ministers, truly 
and purely to minister Christ's gospel and sacraments to 
the people." In this document they distinguished them- 
selves and their adherents by the title of The Congre- 
gation, i. e. of the Lord, in opposition to the Church, 
which they called the Congregation of Satan, and those 
lords who signed it were called the Lords of the Congre- 
gation. The leaders of the Congregation shortly after 
this time agreed upon the two following articles : (l) "It 
is thought expedient, advised and ordained, that in all 
parishes of this realm the Common Prayer (probably of 
King Edward VI.) be read weekly, on Sunday and other 
festival days, publicly in the parish-churches, with the 
lessons of the Old and New Testament, conformable to the 
order of the Book of Common Prayer. And if the curates 
of the parishes be qualified, to cause them to read the same ; 
and if they be not, or refuse, that the most qualified in 



294 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND [LECT. 

the parish use and read the same." (2) " It is thought 
necessary that doctrine, preaching, and interpretation of 
scripture, be had and used privately in quiet houses, with- 
out great conventions of the people thereto ; in the hope 
that God may move the prince to grant public preaching 
by faithful and true ministers." Notwithstanding, however, 
the great progress of such opinions, the bishops, in 1558, 
burned David Miln, a reformed preacher, and, at a convo- 
cation in Edinburgh, rejected the following demands of the 
congregation : (l) the use of common prayers in the vulgar 
tongue ; (2) that private persons might interpret scripture 
at their meetings ; (3) that the two sacraments be ad- 
ministered fully in the vulgar tongue ; (4) that the scandal- 
ous lives of churchmen be reformed, &c. In the following 
year the Queen Regent, who had up to this time, from 
policy, tolerated the Reformers, declared against them ; but 
the accession of Elizabeth, and their own increasing strength, 
so emboldened them, that on the arrival of Knox, at Perth, 
on the 11th of May, 1559, they plundered and destroyed 
all the property of the established Church at that place, 
and for several weeks marched through the country, and 
defaced the monasteries and other ecclesiastical buildings. 
On the 25th of July of the same year the Queen Regent 
entered into a treaty with their party, by which toleration 
was secured. At length, by the assistance of the English 
forces, Mary, queen of Scotland, who was then residing in 
France, was compelled to engage that the grievances of 
the Congregation should be taken into consideration at a 
meeting of the States, on the 1st of August, 1560. This 
parliament ratified their Confession of Faith on the 17th 
of August. On the 23rd an act was passed for abolishing 
the mass, by which the sayers and hearers were, for the 
first fault, to suifer a forfeiture of all their goods, and a 
corporal punishment at the discretion of the judge ; for the 
second banishment ; and for the third death. On the 24th 
of the same month the Pope's authority in Scotland was 
abolished, and all former acts not consonant with the 



XI.] TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. 295 

Confession of Faith were rescinded. After the dissolution 
of the parliament, Knox, with five others, drew up a form 
of church-polity, called the First Booh of Discipline, 
which consists of nine divisions, besides subdivisions ; it 
appoints superintendents with certain episcopal powers, 
ten of which were assigned to as many dioceses by name ; 
it enjoins " sitting at the Lord's table, as most convenient 
to that holy action, and thinks it nearest to what Christ 
and the Apostles did ; that the minister break the bread 
and distribute to those that are next to him, commanding 
the rest every one with reverence and sobriety to break 
with other, during which time some such proper places of 
scripture ought to be read as the minister shall appoint." 
Again, as to ministers, " other ceremonies than the public 
approbation of the people and declaration of the chief 
ministers we cannot approve : For albeit the Apostles used 
the laying on of hands, yet since the miracle is ceased, the 
using of the ceremony we judge not necessary ;" again, 
" to the Church, which cannot presently be furnished with 
ministers, men must be appointed that can distinctly read 
the Common Prayers and scriptures ;" again, " four times 
in the year we think sufficient for the ministering the 
Lord's table ; and, to prevent the superstition of observing 
Easter and such like, we appoint the first Sundays of the 
four months of March, June, September, and December, for 
that service ;" again, " the papistical priests have neither 
power nor authority to minister the sacraments of Christ, 
because in their mouth is not the sermon of exhortation." 
An attempt was also made to obtain all the Church pro- 
perty, but the Estates being Scotchmen, who thought that 
church-corn made good bread, could not agree with the 
"devout imagination" of Knox and his coadjutors, and 
therefore granted them only part of their request ; but to 
soften their ire, and gratify their desires at a cheap rate, 
they gave them full liberty to demolish all the remaining 
cloisters and abbey-churches ; they, of course, agreed with 
Knox, " that the only way to banish rooks was to pull 



296 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND [LECT. 

down their houses," so that there could be no chance of 
their being called upon to disgorge their sacrilegious plun- 
der. As the lay superintendents and gospel preachers 
required no learning, the libraries, and all such superfluities 
of naughtiness, were destroyed. 

Affairs remained in much the same state until the 
return of Mary from France, in 1561, when the Arch- 
bishop of St Andrew's, with other bishops, in the name of 
the whole Church, agreed that all beneficed clergymen 
should give a third of their incomes to defray the extra- 
ordinaries of the Queen's household,^ and the maintenance 
of the reformed ministry. They were compelled to be 
satisfied with this, notwithstanding Knox's pious declaration 
from the pulpit, " that it could not prosper, for he saw 
two parts given to the devil, and the third divided between 
God and the devil." In the year 1563, Knox caused the 
bishops to be imprisoned for having said mass, but the 
Queen afterwards released them. The Reformers now 
held their assemblies twice in the year, under the guid- 
ance of a moderator ; their chief debates being how they 
could manage to destroy idolatry, and increase their own 
stipends. 

From the year 1560 to 1578 the ecclesiastical govern- 
ment in Scotland was a mixture of episcopacy and pres- 
byterianism ; for the next twenty years, until 1598, 
episcopacy was abolished, and the bishops only existed as 
lay barons. At that time a modification of episcopacy was 
clearly established; in 1606 the bishops recovered some 
of their temporalities ; in 1610 the assembly appointed 
them moderators of the Kirk meetings ; and three bishops 
having been canonically consecrated in London, they, on 
their return, consecrated then* brethren, so that a regular 
Church was once more established. After the visit of 
James I. to Scotland, the articles of Perth were agreed to 
in 1618 ; they enacted, (l) That the sacrament of the 
Eucharist should be received kneeling ; (2) That it might 
be administered privately to the sick ; (3) That in cases 



XI.] TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. 297 

of necessity private baptism might be used ; (4) That the 
minister of every parish should catechise the children, and 
bring them to the bishop for confirmation ; (5) That every 
minister commemorate the days of our Lord's birth, pas- 
sion, resurrection, ascension, and sending of the Holy Ghost. 
In 1621 the Parliament gave its sanction to these articles ; 
and lastly, in 1636, the Scottish Liturgy, drawn up by the 
English and Scotch bishops, was formally promulgated and 
brought into use ; and as the Irish Church had formally 
adopted the English Liturgy, in 1635, the ecclesiastical 
affairs of the whole kingdom were then settled upon an 
episcopalian basis. 

Note : — From the year 1638 to 1660, the history of the 
Church is so mixed up with the secular troubles of the realm, 
that even a brief notice of them is beyond the scope of the 
present lectures. It may suffice to mention, that Archbishop 
Laud was executed by the insurgents in 1644, the Liturgy 
abolished, and some form of their own established by the rebels ; 
that in 1648 King Charles I. suffered martyrdom; and that from 
that time, until the return of Charles II. in 1660, the clergy 
and the Church in general suffered every species of persecution; 
in fact, as far as Church History is involved, the period may be 
omitted altogether. 



Q. Up to what period did the Church of Ireland 
remain independent of the Popes ? What was its state, 
and the nature of its government at that period ? 

A. Until about the year 1152, at which time there 
were ten bishops in the province of Armagh, five in that 
of Dublin, twelve in Cash el, and seven in Tuam ; these 
were elected either by the clergy, or by the clergy in 
conjunction with the laity and king, and generally con- 
secrated by the archbishops of Armagh, who exercised the 
office of primate, except those of Dublin, Waterford, and 
Limerick, who, after the Norman Conquest, were consecrated 
by the archbishops of Canterbury. 

Q. Under what circumstances did the Popes first 
interfere with the Church of Ireland ? 

13—5 



298 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF IRELAND [lECT. 

A. In consequence of an application made to Pope 
Innocent II. (a.d. 1130—1143) and his successors, by 
Malachy O'Morgair, who resigned the archbishopric of 
Armagh about 1139, that prelate, in character of papal 
legate, obtained the consent of the synod of the Irish 
Church, held at Holmpatrick, a.d. 1148, to send to Rome 
for palls for the four archbishops. These arrived in 1152, 
and Gelasius, archbishop of Armagh, was declared primate 
of all Ireland. 

Q. When did the kings of England acquire power 
over the Irish Church ? What contests arose between 
them and the Popes? 

A. Henry II. having become " Lord " of Ireland, 
a.d, 1172, appointed a bishop of Waterford in 1175; but 
in 1202 the Pope contested the power of appointment with 
King John, and at length, in 1206, succeeded in inducing 
him to concede the right of nomination to bishoprics. At 
a subsequent period, the rule appears to have been, that 
the King gave the chapter license to proceed to an election, 
and if he approved of the choice, he then granted the 
temporalities to the new bishop ; but the Popes often inter- 
fered with this regulation, and in 1258 Pope Alexander IV. 
compelled Henry III. to admit his nominee to the arch- 
bishopric of Armagh. The right of appointment was 
generally contested between the King and the Pope in 
the subsequent reigns ; but after the Reformation, Queen 
Elizabeth was empowered to fill up the sees by letters 
patent. 

Q. How, according to Ussher and Leland, did the 
kings of England acquire the sovereignty over Ireland ? 

A. " Whatsoever become of the Pope's idle chal- 
lenges, the crown of England hath otherwise obtained an 
undoubted right unto the sovereignty of this country ; partly 
by conquest, prosecuted at first on occasion of a social war, 
partly by the several submissions of the chieftains of the 
land made afterwards. For ' whereas it is free for all 
men, although they have been formerly quit from all subjec- 



xt 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. 299 



tion, to renounce their own right, yet now in these our days, 
(saith Giraldus Cambrensis, in his History of the Conquest 
of Ireland,) all the princes of Ireland did voluntarily submit, 
and bind themselves with firm bonds of faith and oath unto 
Henry II. king of England.'" Ussher's Religion of the 
Ancient Irish, p. 115. " The Irish parliament had occa- 
sionally acknowledged this (i. e. the Pope's grant of Ireland 
to Henry II.) to be the only legitimate foundation of the 
authority of the crown of England." Leland, Vol. n. 
p. 160. But Bishop Mant asserts that there is no real 
authority for representing the King as the feoffee of the 
Pope, in derogation of the royal supremacy. See Mant's 
History of the Church of Ireland, c. ii. sec. 1. 

Q. When and by what means was the supremacy of 
Henry VIII. acknowledged in Ireland? 

A. An act of the Irish parliament held in Dublin, 
a.d. 1537, declared "that the king, his heirs and suc- 
cessors, should be the supreme head of the Church of 
Ireland." Another act was passed " against the authority 
of the Bishop of Borne," and forbade all persons, on pain of 
pra3munire, to countenance his pretensions. In the follow- 
ing year the opposition of the clergy was counteracted, and 
the firstfruits and a twentieth part of the annual income of 
all benefices were granted to the king. 

Q. When and how was the English Liturgy introduced 
into Ireland ? 

A. After the order of King Edward VI., requesting 
the Irish Church to use his first book, had been complied 
with at a synod held in Dublin, it was first used on Easter- 
day a.d. 1551. 

Q. State briefly the regulations which Mary and 
Elizabeth introduced into the Irish Church. 

A. Mary restored everything to its ancient state, 
whilst Elizabeth abolished the papal supremacy, annexed 
the firstfruits and twentieths to the crown, abolished the 
mass, and ordered the English Common Prayer to be used. 
In the year 1566, " A brief declaration of certain principal 



tSOO HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF IRELAND [lECT. 

Articles of Religion for the uniformity of doctrine, &c." 
was promulgated. 

Q. Quote Bishop Mant's account of the connexion of the 
English and Irish Churches during the reigns of Edward VI. 
and Elizabeth. 

A. "The Church of Ireland, from the earliest days of the 
Reformation, under King Edward VI., and especially during the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, had depended in a principal degree, if 
not altogether, on the Church of England, and had been in 
agreement with that Church in all things. Her bishops had 
been in a great measure Englishmen, sent over from England, or 
the descendants of English parents, though of Irish birth. Her 
liturgy, her forms of ordination, and her sacred rites and cere- 
monies, were the same. Her clergy practised an entire and 
regular conformity, so far as the different customs of the two 
countries would allow, to the articles and constitutions of the 
English Church ; and, whether on their admission to holy orders, 
or on their appointment to the cure of souls, or on their pro- 
motion to any ecclesiastical dignity, subscribed, from the year 
1562, the fourth year of Queen Elizabeth, to the English Articles 
of Faith." History of the Church of Ireland, chap. vi. sect. 3. 

Q. State some particulars with regard to certain 
Articles of Religion which were adopted by the Church of 
Ireland in the reign of James I. 

A. They consisted of one hundred and four sections, 
arranged under nineteen heads, and comprehended " almost 
word for word the nine articles agreed on at Lambeth, 
the 20th of November, a.d. 1595." They were published 
as " Articles of Religion, agreed upon by the archbishops 
and bishops, and the rest of the clergy of Ireland, in the 
convocation holden at Dublin, in the year of our Lord God 
1615, for the avoiding of diversities of opinions, and the 
establishing of consent touching True Religion." They 
were " signed by the then Lord Deputy Chichester, by 
order from King James, in his name." 

Q. When were the English Articles formally adopted 
by the Irish Church? How did this affect the authority 
of the Irish Articles ? 

A. In the year 1635 the Irish convocation adopted 
the English Articles, without formally rescinding their own 



3£I 



] TO THE DEATH OP CHARLES I. 301 



articles, and for some time afterwards certain prelates ex- 
acted a subscription to both ; but after the Irish rebellion, in 
1641, the Irish Church " recognised and used the English 
Articles only. The others naturally fell into neglect, 
desuetude, and oblivion, as if they had never existed." 

Q. Who drew up a new code of canons for the Irish 
Church ? Were they ever ratified ? 

A. Bramhall, bishop of Derry. These canons were 
one hundred in number ; but although they agreed in sub- 
stance and intention with those of England, yet they em- 
braced many important variations. They were passed in the 
Irish convocation, and received the assent of King Charles I. 
according to the act of parliament, in the year 1635. 

Q. In the year 1641 Archbishop Ussher made a 
proposal to constitute a modified form of episcopacy. Give 
some account of it. 

A. It consisted of four propositions: (l) " That in 
every parish the rector, or the incumbent pastor, together 
with the churchwarden and sidemen," should constitute a 
body for the management of the parish. (2) That the 
statutes of the 26 Henry VIII. and of the 1 Elizabeth, 
which authorized the appointment of suffragan bishops (sup- 
plying the place of those who in the ancient Church were 
called " chorepiscopi") should be carried into effect. That 
they should hold monthly assemblies, in which all cases 
with regard to the discipline and management of their 
district were to be discussed. (3) " The diocesan synod 
might be held once or twice in the year, &c. Here all 
matters of greater moment might be taken into con- 
sideration, &c." (4) " The provincial synod might consist 
of all the bishops and suffragans, and such of the clergy as 
should be elected out of every diocese, &c." 



Q. Give a brief summary of events from the com- 
mencement of the Civil War to the martyrdom of Charles L 
a.d. 1643—1648-9. 



302 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT. 

A. On the 1st of July, 1643, sixty-nine of " the 
assembly of divines," which was to consist of one hundred 
and twenty-one divines, ten lords, and twenty commoners, 
met at Westminster, to assist, by their deliberations, the 
rebel parliament ; by the 15th of October the Scottish 
covenant was subscribed by their whole party; and shortly 
afterwards about three thousand of the clergy were de- 
prived for their contumacy, the churches and cathedrals 
were defaced, desecrated, and defiled, and Scotch presby- 
terianism adopted. In 1644 ten members of the assembly, 
and thirteen presbyters of London/ were empowered by 
their parliaments to ordain ministers ; in January 1645, 
the acts of Elizabeth enjoining the use of the Liturgy were 
abolished, and a Directory for Public Worship issued, and 
severe penalties imposed on all who now used the Common 
Prayer, either in public or private. By the Directory, 
private and lay baptism, and the use of the sign of the 
cross, were discontinued, and even when the child was 
presented, the minister was to declare that the omission of 
the sacrament did not endanger its salvation. The com- 
munion tables were removed into the body of the churches, 
and the communicants might sit or stand, according to their 
pleasure. The Apocrypha, saints' days, particular vest- 
ments, the use of the ring in marriage, confession and 
absolution in the Visitation of the Sick, the Burial-service, 
the reading of the Creed and Ten Commandments, and the 
observation of Christmas-day, were all and each discon- 
tinued. The assembly also published a confession, and a 
larger and a smaller catechism, all of which were of a 
Calvinistic tendency. The Westminster Confession was 
adopted by the Kirk of Scotland, on 27th of August, 1647, 
session 23, and was ratified by act of parliament, 7th of 
February, 1649. These formularies, which anathematize 
the Church of Christ in England, are in force amongst the 
Scottish schismatics to this day. Archbishop Laud suffered 
martyrdom this year ; one of the charges against him being 
that he had attempted to introduce idolatry, and to recon- 



XI.] TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES I. 303 

cile the Church of England to that of Rome ; whereas it 
was proved, first, that he was, for the most part, in the 
right ; secondly, that, even if he were censurable upon all 
the articles alleged against him, he was not therefore guilty 
of an attempt to introduce popery ; and, thirdly, though 
such an attempt could have been proved against him, that 
it would not have amounted, by the law of the land, to 
treason. In March 1646, an ordinance was passed, by 
which every parish was to be governed by the minister 
and ruling elders. These presbyteries were formed into 
classes, each of which sent representatives to the provincial 
assembly, and each provincial assembly sent deputies to 
the national assembly ; but an appeal from all these tri- 
bunals might be carried to the parliament. The names 
and offices of bishops were abolished, and their revenues 
applied to the payment of the public debt ; the bishops 
were also now deprived of a pittance which had been 
previously allowed them, and the presbyterians avoided in 
every way the payment of the fifths, which had been 
assigned to the wives and children of the persecuted clergy. 
On May 5, 1646, King Charles surrendered himself to the 
Scotch army at Newark, and shortly afterwards held a 
controversy with Henderson, the presbyterian, at New- 
castle, on his reluctance to take the covenant, viz. " Whether 
episcopacy was not to be supported as jure divino ; and 
whether his coronation-oath, which engaged him to support 
the established religion, could lawfully be violated." In 
the year 1647 the Scotch sold the King to the English 
rebels for two hundred thousand pounds. In 1648 the 
King held another disputation in the Isle of Wight, and 
on the 30th of January, 1649, he suffered martyrdom in 
London. By this time the Independents, under Cromwell, 
had succeeded to the chief power. They were more 
tolerant to all parties, except popery and prelacy, than 
their antagonists, and under the government of Cromwell, 
the usurped spiritual power (so called) was kept in sub- 
jection to the usurped political government. 



304 HISTORY OF THI! CHURCH OF ENGLAND fl-ECT. 



lerturt xn. 

THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND SUBSEQUENT TO THE 
RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. A. D. 1660, WITH BRIEF NOTICES OF 
OTHER CHURCHES. 



Q. Mention some of the steps that were taken to 
re-establish the affairs of the Church at the Restoration. 

A. As the acts of the Long Parliament were utterly 
void, on account of their want of the royal confirmation, it 
was held that the position of the Church had not been 
altered during the usurpation ; the Liturgy came at once 
into use, and all ecclesiastics who had been deprived 
resumed their preferments. As only nine bishops were 
remaining, seven new ones were consecrated in December 
1660, and four in the following January. 

Q. State the result of a conference between the 
bishops and the leaders of the Presbyterians, held at Sion 
College, soon after the Restoration. 

A. A declaration, drawn up by the episcopal, and 
revised by the presbyterian party, was published in the 
name of the king ; it contained regulations for appointing 
learned ministers ; and also suffragans in large dioceses ; 
for duly administering the Lord's Supper and Confirmation ; 
and for the correction of scandalous offences ; but kneeling 
at the receiving of the Holy Communion, the cross in Bap- 
tism, the ring in marriage, the surplice, the oath of 
canonical obedience, and subscription to the Thirty-nine 
Articles, were not to be insisted upon until the promised 
review of the Liturgy had taken place ; and, lastly, that 
Ussher's scheme of moderate episcopacy should, with some 
alterations, be adopted. 

Q. To what two points were the Presbyterians re- 
quested at the Savoy conference to reduce their objections 
to the book of Common Prayer ? What alterations were 
at length adopted by the bishops ? 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 305 

A. The bishops consented to give up the objectionable 
ceremonies, provided they could be proved to be either 
sinful or improper, whereas their antagonists contended 
that no positive obligation ought to be imposed on them 
to conform in things which were indifferent. The chief 
alterations made were : (l) That the authorized version of 
the Bible should be used, except in the Ten Command- 
ments, the Psalms, and the sentences in the Communion 
service. (2) That the five prayers then at the end of the 
Litany should be transferred to the end of the Morning 
and Evening services. (3) The Prayers for the Ember- 
weeks, for the Parliament and for all Conditions of Men, 
the General Thanksgiving, and that for restoring peace at 
home, were all added. (4) Some new collects were intro- 
duced, some changes made in others, and the word Church 
substituted for congregation. (5) The exhortation in 
giving notice of the Communion was ordered to be read on 
the Sunday or some holiday before its administration, and 
persons were required to give the curate notice of their 
intention to communicate ; the admonition against transub- 
stantiation was also introduced. (6) The office for the 
Baptism of those of Biper Years, of Prayers to be used at 
Sea, and the five last prayers in the Visitation of the Sick, 
were added, and the absolution of the sick was left to the 
judgment of the curate. (7) The consent of the curate 
was required before Confirmation ; but the bishop might 
dispense with it, and it was not absolutely necessary for 
admission to the Communion. In the Churching of Women, 
the Psalms were changed, and the service might be read 
from the desk ; new-married people were only exhorted 
to receive the Lord's Supper. The ordinary might direct 
where the font was to be placed ; and lastly, in the Cate- 
chism, the words " Because they promise them both by 
their sureties, &c." were substituted for, " Yes, they do 
perform them by their sureties, who promise and vow them 
in their names, &c." 



306 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT. 

Q. What changes were adopted in Scotland and 
Ireland at the Restoration ? 

A. (l) In Scotland, after mature deliberation, a pro- 
clamation was issued, declaring it to be " his Majesty's 
pleasure to restore the government of the Church by arch- 
bishops and bishops, as it stood settled in the year 1637." 
As only one Scotch bishop was then alive, four more were 
canonically consecrated in England, in 1661, who conse- 
crated ten more in Scotland in 1662, and the restoration 
of episcopacy was sanctioned by an act of parliament, in 
which it was declared, " that whatever shall be determined 
by his Majesty, with the advice of the archbishops and 
bishops, and such of the clergy as shall be nominated by 
his Majesty, in the external government of the Church, 
shall be valid and effectual." The taking of the oaths 
called "the National Covenant, begun in 1638, and the 
Solemn League and Covenant in 1643, were and are 
declared unlawful oaths." (2) Only eight of the Irish 
prelates survived, but the king restored all the temporali- 
ties of the Church, as fully as they were possessed in the 
year 1641, and, in 1661, appointed bishops to all the 
vacant sees, twelve of whom were consecrated in St 
Patrick^ cathedral, Dublin, on the 27th of January, 1661. 
In the course of this year " the episcopate of the Church 
of Ireland was again completed, consisting of four arch- 
bishops, and seventeen suffragans, or twenty-one prelates 
in the whole ; and so it continued for the next one hundred 
and seventy years, with but few, and those not very 
material, modifications." Bishop Mant's History of the 
Church of Ireland, ch. ix. sect. 1. These and some other 
alterations and additions having been approved of by the 
convocations, were ratified by act of parliament, a.d. 1662, 
and remain in force to this day. 

Q. Two remarkable acts were passed in the first 
parliament of Charles II. What were their provisions ? 

A. (1) " The Corporation Act," which compelled all 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 307 

officers of corporations to abjure the covenant, take the 
oaths of supremacy and allegiance, as well as that concern- 
ing the unlawfulness of taking up arms against the king, 
and, within a year of coming into office, to receive the 
sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England. 
(2) " The Act of Uniformity," which enacted that every 
beneficed clergyman should be ejected ipso facto, unless 
before the 24th of August, 1662, he used the Church 
service, and declared his assent and consent to everything 
contained therein. 

Q. State very briefly those acts of James II. which 
led to his dethronement. 

A. On his accession in 1685 he promised to pre- 
serve both the civil and ecclesiastical governments as then 
established, upon which parliament voted him a large 
supply ; but when Compton, bishop of London, in the 
name of the whole episcopal bench opposed his abolishing 
the tests, in the case of Romanist military officers, he dis- 
solved the parliament. He next prohibited the inferior 
clergy from preaching against popery, and established an 
Ecclesiastical Commission, by which the Bishop of London 
was suspended from the exercise of his functions. In 
1687 he attempted to introduce papists into the two Uni- 
versities ; but that of Cambridge refused to admit, without 
he took the oaths, Father Francis, a Benedictine, as a 
Master of Arts, notwithstanding he had a royal mandate 
for the degree. He next, a.d. 1668, issued a new decla- 
ration in favour of liberty of conscience, which favoured 
the papists still more, and ordered it to be read in all 
parish-churches; upon which the primate and six bishops 
presented a respectful petition against the legality of his 
dispensing power. For this act the King committed them 
to the Tower, but being shortly afterwards brought to trial, 
they were acquitted. At length, however, he abdicated 
the throne, and William and Mary succeeded him. 

Q. Mention some of the provisions of the Toleration 
Act, 



308 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT. 

A. It abolished all penal acts against Protestant 
dissenters, provided they took the oaths to government, 
subscribed the doctrinal articles of the Church, worshipped 
with open doors, and paid tithes and other parochial dues. 
They might serve parish-offices by deputy, and even 
Anabaptists and Quakers were included, provided they 
would profess their belief in the Trinity and the scriptures; 
but the Socinians were excluded from all benefits of this act. 

Q. Who were the Non-jurors, and what principles 
did they hold ? 

A. Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, Lloyd, bishop 
of Norwich, Frampton of Gloucester, Thomas of Worcester, 
Turner of Ely, Kenn of Bath and Wells, Lake of Chiches- 
ter, and White of Peterborough, and many of the clergy, 
were all deprived of their preferments for refusing to 
swear allegiance to William and Mary ; and being joined 
by a large body of the laity, they formed a separate 
episcopal community, which was denominated that of the 
Non-jurors. 

Note : — " The Non-jurors held the doctrine of passive obedi- 
ence ; maintaining that no provocation or pretext whatsoever can 
justify or legalize resistance to the sovereign. They considered 
hereditary succession to the throne to be of divine institution, and 
therefore on no account to be interrupted, suspended, or annulled. 
They held that the Church, especially in matters of a religious 
nature, is subject to the jurisdiction of God alone, and not of the 
civil magistrate : that consequently Sancroft and the other de- 
prived bishops, continued, under deposition, "true bishops" to 
the day of their death ; that they were the lawful proprietors of 
the sees, in which those substituted were usurpers, rebels against 
the state, and schismatics in the Church ; that their adherents 
were likewise chargeable with rebellion and schism ; and, finally, 
that this schism which rends the Church in pieces, was a sin 
against the unity of the body of Christ ; to be visited with 
severity on all who would not return sincerely to the bosom of 
the Church from which they had dissevered themselves." 

Q. Who succeeded Sancroft? What was meant by 
the bill of Comprehension ? 

A. Tillotson ; on whose death, two years afterwards, 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 809 

Tenison, became primate. Thirty divines, among whom 
were Tillotson, Tenison, Patrick, Burnet, Stillingfleet, &c. 
endeavoured to draw up such a scheme, as, by altering the 
liturgy, articles, and canons, might comprehend all sects; 
but it was rejected by the Convocation. 

Q. How did the Prince of Orange act with regard to 
the Church of Scotland, and under what circumstances was 
Presbyterianism adopted ? 

A. As the dissenting denominations in Scotland had 
violently driven many of the clergy from their parishes, 
he issued a proclamation for keeping the peace, " expressly 
prohibiting all violence on account of religion . . . and requiring 
all men in arms to disband themselves...;" this was obeyed 
by the adherents of the Church, whereas the rabble of 
Presbyterians, and other sects, set the law at defiance as 
before. William also complained that he had received no 
support from the Church, and that he would therefore 
stand by the Presbyterians. On the 14th of March, 1689, 
a convention of the estates met, and after that the bishops, 
and the friends of the Church had been driven away by 
open violence from the assembly, on the 11th of April it 
declared its Claim of Eight, that James had forfaulted 
his right to the crown, by becoming " a profest papist ;" 
and, " That prelacy, and the superiority of any office in 
the Church above presbyters, is and hath been a great 
and insupportable grievance and trouble to this nation, and 
contrary to the inclinations of the generality of the 
people, ever since the Reformation, they having reformed 
from Popery by presbyters, and therefore ought to be 
abolished." William and Mary were then declared king 
and queen of Scotland, and " the ministers within the city 
of Edinburgh, under pain of being deprived, and losing 
their benefices," were required to read from their pulpits, 
upon Sunday, the 14th, a proclamation to this effect, which 
had been issued only the day before ; and on the 11th of 
May the new king and queen took an oath to " maintain 
the true religion of Christ Jesus, the preaching of his holy 



310 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT. 

word, and the due and right ministration of the sacra- 
ments, now received and preached within the realm of 
Scotland ; and abolish and gainstand all false religion, 
contrary to the same, &c." The Convention was then 
turned into a Parliament, and on the 22nd of July they 
passed the following act, " Whereas the estates of this 
kingdom in their Claim of Eight of the 11th of April last, 
declared that prelacy is an insupportable grievance, &c. ; 
our Sovereign Lord and Lady, with advice and consent 
of the Estates of Parliament, do hereby abolish prelacy, 
and all superiority of any office in, the Church of this 
kingdom above presbyters ; and hereby rescinds, casses, 
and annuls three acts of Parliament under Charles II., and 
all other acts, statutes and constitutions, in so far allenarly, 
as they are inconsistent with this act, and establish prelacy, 
or superiority of church-offices above presbyters ; and 
their majesties do declare, that they, with advice and 
consent aforesaid, will settle, by law, that Church-govern- 
ment in this kingdom which is most agreeable to the 
inclination of the people" On the 19th of September 
the Church was deprived of all its possessions, the prelates, 
priests and deacons, as well as the members of the uni- 
versities, were ejected from their positions ; and after a 
scene of violence, which nothing except a revolution could 
give even a colour of legality to, the presbyterian scheme 
was adopted : but even then they were obliged, in 1690 
and 1695, to get acts of parliament to force their system 
on the people, and at length they prohibited the Non-jurors 
from solemnizing either baptisms or marriages on pain of 
imprisonment. 

Q. What was the state of the persecuted Church of 
Scotland in the reign of Queen Anne ? a.d. 1702 — 1714. 

A. On the 25th of January, 1705, Archbishop Pater- 
son of Glasgow, Bishop Rose of Edinburgh, and Bishop 
Douglas of Dunblain, consecrated John Sage and John 
Fullarton bishops, to keep up the succession. In 1707 
the English government, in order to induce the Presby- 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 311 

terians to favour the Act of Union, arbitrarily ordered all 
the Churches in Scotland to be shut up; but this persecution 
having partially subsided, and a supply of Prayer-books 
being obtained from England, the Church again began to 
raise its head, and several presbyters were consecrated 
bishops. On the 3rd of March, 1712, an act passed the 
British Parliament, to " prevent the disturbing those of the 
Episcopal communion in that part of Great Britain called 
Scotland, in the exercise of their religious worship, and in 
the use of the Liturgy of the Church of England, and for 
repealing the act passed in the Parliament of Scotland, 
intituled, the Act against irregular baptisms and marriages ;" 
but it was necessary for the clergy to produce their letters 
of orders, and to take the oaths of allegiance and abju- 
ration before the justices of peace ; and also to pray for 
Queen Anne and the royal family. Another act was also 
passed, which galled the Presbyterians by rescinding their 
act of 1690 against Patronages; it restored to "the pa- 
trons their ancient rights of presenting ministers to the 
churches vacant in that part of Great Britain called Scot- 
land." 

Q. Mention briefly some particulars with regard to 
the Church of Scotland from the death of the queen until 
the Act of Toleration, a.d. 1714 — 1788. 

A. An act was passed in 1719, by which all the 
officiating clergy were compelled to pray for the reigning 
family by name, and in default to suffer six months' im- 
prisonment; and every meeting of nine persons, besides the 
members of a family, for worship, was sufficient to bring 
the house and clergyman under the act. In the year 
1731, in order to heal some animosities, certain "Articles 
of Agreement amongst the bishops of the Church of Scot- 
land" were drawn up; these were as follows: "(l) That 
we shall only make use of the Scottish or English Liturgy 
in the public divine service, &c. (2) That no man shall 
be consecrated a bishop of this Church, without the con- 
sent and approbation of the majority of the other bishops. 



312 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [LECT. 

(3) That upon the demise or removal elsewhere of a bishop 
of any district, the presbyters thereof shall neither elect, 
nor submit to another bishop, without a mandate from the 
Primus, by consent of the other bishops. (4) That the 
bishops of the Church shall, by a majority of voices, choose 
their Primus, for convocating and presiding only ; and that 
no bishop shall claim jurisdiction without the bounds of 
his own district." The 5th and 6th relate to internal 
regulations. In the year 1742-3, the Church was re- 
gularly organized under six bishops, and sixteen canons 
were unanimously adopted, (l) That no person should 
be consecrated a bishop without the consent and appro- 
bation of the majority of the bishops. (2) A majority 
shall elect a Primus for presiding and convocating only, 
&c. (3) The Primus not to claim " metropolitical juris- 
diction." (4, 5) The consent of the Primus and the 
majority of bishops necessary for a translation. (6, 7) 
Every bishop shall appoint a dean, who, in case of a 
vacancy, shall notify it to the Primus, and the neighbouring 
bishop shall officiate during the vacancy. The remainder 
refer merely to internal regulations. In the year 1745 
the churches were destroyed and plundered by the mob 
or soldiery; in 1746 an act of parliament was passed, 
which, in addition to the penalties of that of 1719, en- 
acted that if a clergyman was convicted of a second, or 
any subsequent offence against it, he should be transported 
for life ; it also declared that five persons, besides the 
family, constituted a conventicle; and in 1748 it was enacted, 
"that no letters of orders of any episcopal minister in Scot- 
land shall be admitted to be registered, but such as have 
been given by some bishop of the Church of England or of 
Ireland." It was also enacted that every person present 
at an unlicensed service, who neglected to give notice to a 
magistrate within five days afterwards, should suffer fine 
and imprisonment. " No peer of Scotland was capable of 
being elected one of the sixteen peers of Parliament, or of 
voting at such election, nor any person of being elected, or 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 313 

voting at any election of, a member of Parliament, for any 
shire or burgh in Scotland," &c, if he had been present at 
an unlicensed congregation twice in any one year. All 
these acts were enforced until the year 1788, when, at the 
death of Prince Charles, toleration was granted to the 
Church, on condition that the clergy should pray for the 
king and royal family by name, as prescribed in the Eng- 
lish Liturgy, take the oaths prescribed to civil and military 
officers, and subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church 
of England. 

Q. The bill of toleration of the Church of Scotland, 
passed a.d. 1792, contains one peculiar limitation. What 
is it? 

A. " No person exercising the function, or assuming 
the office and character of a pastor or minister of any 
order, in the episcopal communion in Scotland, is capable 
of taking any benefice, curacy, or other spiritual promotion, 
in England, Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, or of officiating 
in any church or chapel within the same, where the Liturgy 
of the Church of England is used, unless he shall have 
been lawfully ordained by some bishop of the Church of 
England, or of Ireland." 

Note : — The same rule applies to those who are ordained in 
the Colonies. 

Q. Under what circumstances were bishops intro- 
duced into the United States of America ? 

A. On the 14th of November, 1784, Dr Seabury, 
an English presbyter, who had been selected by the 
clergy of Connecticut for their bishop, was consecrated at 
Aberdeen by three bishops of the Church of Scotland. 
On the 4th of February, 1787, also, two bishops were 
consecrated in England, and in 1790, another ; so that the 
canonical number for transmitting the episcopal function 
being complete, the Church in the States was regularly 
constituted. 

Q. In what year and by whom was the order of the 
Jesuits founded ? State briefly some of its characteristics. 
14 



314 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT'. 

A. By Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight, a.d. 1540. 
Pope Paul III. confirmed the order, on their promising 
unlimited obedience to him and his successors. They are 
divided into three classes : (l) Professed members. (2) 
Scholars. (3) Novices. The spiritual and temporal co- 
adjutors, who perform the same functions as the professed 
members, (who are bound to go without deliberation or 
delay wherever the Pope wishes), and are only bound by 
the three simple vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, 
may be considered as a fourth. They were suppressed in 
1764, but reinstated by Pope Pius YIL, about 1809-10. 

Q. Into what three communities may the Greek 
Church be divided ? 

A. (l) The Greek Christians, who acknowledge the 
patriarch of Constantinople for their head. (2) Those who 
are subject to the Pope. (3) Those who are governed 
by their own bishops. 

Q. Who form the two branches of the Greek Church? 

A. (l) The patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and 
Jerusalem, who acknowledge the supremacy of the patri- 
arch of Constantinople. (2) The Russians, Georgians, and 
Mingrelians, who join him in communion and doctrine, but 
refuse to obey him. 

Q. State briefly some particulars relating to two 
classes of Christians who have separated from the com- 
munion of the Greeks and Latins. 

A. (l) The Monophysites or Jacobites, the African 
portion of whom, (comprehending the Copts and Abyssin- 
ians), receive a primate from their acknowledged ruler, the 
patriarch of Alexandria, whilst the Asiatic portion, who 
from their minute differences may be said to comprehend 
the Armenians, choose their own bishop. (2) The Nes- 
torians. 

Q. Who is the visible head, and what is the form of 
government of the Lutherans ? 

A, The supreme civil rulers of each state, who ap- 
point consistories composed of persons versed in the know- 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 315 

ledge of civil and ecclesiastical law, to preside, under certain 
limitations, oyer their affairs. In Sweden and Denmark 
alone they are under episcopal government. 

Q. Mention some of the practices of Lutherans. 
A. (l) Their liturgies are very discordant. (2) 
The mode of worship depends chiefly on their ministers. 
(3) They observe certain days. (4) Their discipline con- 
sists chiefly in the power of excommunication. 

Q. What is to be understood by the reformed 
Protestants ? 

A. Those who refuse to adopt the doctrine and 
discipline of Luther. The name was first assumed in 
France, and afterwards became the common denomination 
of all the foreign Calvinistical communities. 

Q. Mention some of the points upon which the founder 
of the primitive reformers differed from Luther. 

A. Ulric Zwingle, a native of Switzerland, their 
founder, maintamed that the bread and wine were mere 
signs and symbols of the absent body and blood of 
Christ, whilst Luther held that they were present in some 
incomprehensible manner. They also differed on minute 
points, such as private confession, exorcism, the use of 
images, &c, which the reformed utterly rejected. 

Q. What was Zwingle's fate ? What efforts were 
made after his death to reconcile the Lutheran and Hel- 
vetic communities ? With what success ? 

A. Zwingle was killed in a battle that was fought 
a.d. 1530 between the adherents of the Romanists and 
the Protestants of Zurich ; after his death several Lutheran 
doctors, and particularly Martin Bucer, endeavoured to re- 
concile the Helvetic and Lutheran communities ; but, when 
Luther, in 1544, published his Confession of Faith, in which 
his doctrine of the Sacrament was maintained, all negocia- 
tions for a comprehension were closed. After the death of 
Luther, a.d. 1546, Melancthon and Calvin made an equally 
unavailing attempt to amalgamate the two parties. 

Q. An event happened in the year 1541, which gave 

14—2 



316 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT. 

a new aspect to the affairs of the reformers. What was 
it? 

A. Calvin (who was born at Noyon in France, a.d. 
1509, and a lawyer by profession, at an early period 
became a zealous reformer, and settled at Geneva, but 
was forced to leave it in 1538,) returned to Geneva and 
established a discipline which became the model of all the 
reformed communities. In conjunction with Theodore Beza 
he founded in 1558 an academy for the training of divines, 
which soon became so celebrated that students repaired to 
it in great numbers from England/ Scotland, France, and 
Germany, by which means his system of government and 
doctrines was widely diffused. He died in 1564, but the 
academy continued to flourish under Beza. He altered 
Zwingle's plan of doctrine chiefly in three respects: (l) He 
reduced the power of the magistrate, to whom Zwingle had 
given unbounded authority, in religious matters, and intro- 
duced the presbyterian form of government, which admitted 
neither of bishops nor subordination amongst the clergy, 
whereas Zwingle admitted a difference in rank amongst 
them, and placed a superintendent at their head. (2) He 
acknowledged a real though spiritual presence in the Eu- 
charist, and permitted none but the pious and regenerate 
believer to partake of it. (3) The doctrine of predesti- 
nation, which had made no part in the doctrine of Zwingle, 
viz. " That God, in predestinating from all eternity one 
part of mankind to everlasting happiness, and another to 
endless misery, was led to make this distinction by no 
other motive than his own good pleasure," was a dis- 
tinguishing feature in his system. 

Q. Were the changes made by Calvin in Zwingle's 
system received by all the reformed communities ? Men- 
tion those which received, and those who rejected them. 

A. No : they were adopted amongst the protestants 
of France, Holland, and Scotland ; whilst the English and 
Germans, and even the Swiss, rejected them; but in process 
of time his theological sentiments were almost universally 



XI£.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES IT. 317 

adopted by the reformed, the English being the only 
Church which set up a standard of orthodoxy for its own 
guidance. 

Q. What was the early state of the reformed in 
France ? 

A. By the middle of the 16th century, under the 
name of Huguenots, they had become a powerful body ; 
they adopted the Genevan discipline; but, notwithstanding 
the fact that many of the princes had adopted their sen- 
timents, they suffered much from persecutions, until the 
Edict of Nantes secured their civil and religious privileges, 
a.d. 1598. 

Q. From what time and under what circumstances 
did the protestant cause decline in France ? 

A. The Huguenots were allowed to hold several well- 
fortified cities, particularly Rochelle, and to have soldiers 
and garrisons of their own ; this led them on many occa- 
sions to oppose the government, and even to solicit the 
alliance of England and Holland, until Louis XIII., at the 
instigation of Cardinal Richelieu, his first minister, took 
Rochelle and all their strong-holds, and reduced them to 
subjection, a.d. 1628. From that time their influence was 
diminished, and protestantism was nearly extinguished by 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., a.d. 
1685. By an edict of Louis XV., a.d. 1724, all pro- 
testant preachers were threatened with death, and their 
abettors with imprisonment. He allowed no emigrants to 
return unless they abjured the protestant faith ; but he 
afterwards modified these regulations, and tolerated them 
to a certain extent. 

Q. Mosheim reduces the controversies that divided 
the Church of Rome in the 16th and 17th centuries to six 
heads : name them. 

A. They related, (l) To the limits and extent of the 
papal power ; (2) To the extent and prerogatives of the 
Church ; (3) To the nature, efficacy, and necessity of 
divine grace ; the nature of original sin ; the natural 



318 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND [lECT. 

power of man to obey God's laws ; and lastly to the nature 
and foundation of those eternal decrees that have the sal- 
vation of man for their object ; (4) To the doctrines of 
morality and rules of practice ; (5) To the administration 
of the sacraments, or rather, the effects produced by their 
administration ; (6) To the proper method of instructing 
Christians in the precepts and truths of religion. 

Q. State briefly some particulars with regard to the views 
held by the different parties in the controversies of the Roman 
Church. 

A. (1) The Jesuits maintained that the Pope was infallible; 
but others held that he was inferior to a general council, and that 
bishops derive their power from Christ himself. (2) The Jesuits 
consider all the world to be comprehended in the Church ; whilst 
their opponents restricted it to the Roman communion. (3) The 
Dominicans, the Augustinians, the Jansenists, &c. asserted that 
the impulses of divine grace could not be opposed; that there 
are no remains of goodness in human nature since its fall; and 
that the decrees of God are arbitrary, &c. ; whilst the Jesuits held 
the contrary, and that God has appointed rewards and punish- 
ments, not by any absolute arbitrary decree, but by means of his 
divine and unlimited prescience. (4) The Jesuits represent it 
" as a matter of perfect indifference from what motives men obey 
the laws of God, provided these laws are really obeyed, and also 
that a man never sins, properly speaking, but when he trans- 
gresses a divine law, which is fully known to him, which is 
present to his mind while he acts, and of which he understands 
the true meaning and intent ;" whilst their adversaries maintained 
the reverse. (5) The Jesuits and Dominicans hold that the 
beneficial effects of the sacraments are produced by their intrinsic 
virtue and immediate operation upon the mind at the time they 
are administered, and that it is immaterial what state of mind 
the receiver is in. (6) One party hold that scriptures ought to 
be translated and used, and the other that a blind submission to 
the Church is sufficient. 

Q. Describe the steps taken by the Roman Pontiffs 
to extend and support their system in the 17th century. 

A. Gregory XV., a.d. 1662, founded and endowed 
" the congregation for the propagation of the faith," with 
the view of sending missionaries all over the world ; and 
Urban VIII. added to it, in 1672, " a college or seminary 
for the propagation of the faith," which was designed for 



XII.] SUBSEQUENT TO THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II. 3 J 9 

the education of foreign missionaries. By these and similar 
efforts the Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and other heathen 
nations were at one time nearly all converted to Chris- 
tianity; but owing to the quarrels of the different Romish 
sects, the whole of their efforts were paralyzed and ren- 
dered nugatory. 

Q. Shew by what means the Lutherans were de- 
pressed in the 17th century. 

A. (1) Ferdinand II., Emperor of Austria, in 1629, 
issued the " Restitution-edict," by which the protestants 
were ordered to deliver up to the Romanists all the church 
property " which they had gained in consequence of the 
religious peace ;" this led to the thirty years' war, which 
was ended by the "Peace of Westphalia," a.d. 1650, when 
the edict was abrogated, but the Lutherans suffered great 
permanent loss. (2) Many of the Lutheran princes em- 
braced the reformed doctrines and discipline. 

Q. Give some account of the rise and doctrines of 
the Arminians. 

A. Arminius was originally a Calvinist, and a pro- 
fessor of divinity at Leyden, but abandoned the system 
about the year 1591 ; his followers, after his death, in 
1606, also received the denomination of Remonstrants, 
from the title of the petition which they addressed, a.d. 
1610, to the states of Holland. They rejected the Calvi- 
nistic doctrine concerning predestination and the divine 
decrees, and held, (l) That God from all eternity de- 
termined to bestow salvation on those who, as he foresaw, 
would persevere in their faith in Christ to the end, and to 
inflict everlasting punishments on those who should con- 
tinue in their unbelief, and resist to the end his divine 
assistance ; (2) That our Saviour died for all mankind ; 
(3) That true faith cannot proceed from the exercise of our 
natural faculties ; but that regeneration and the renewing 
of the Holy Spirit must produce it ; (4) That all good 
works are attributable to God alone, and that grace can be 
resisted; (5) That faith is abundant in strength to cause 



820 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, &C. [lECT. XII.] 

the believer to overcome the seductions of Satan. The 
Synod of Dort was held in 1618 to heal this dispute, but 
the Calvinists never allowed their antagonists a fair oppor- 
tunity of maintaining their position. Episcopius may be 
considered the second founder, and the perfecter of the 
Arminian system. 

Q. On what occasion was the bull Unigenitus issued? 

A. Pasquier Quesnel, a priest of the oratory, having 
translated the New Testament into French, and added 
some annotations which favoured the Jansenists, the Jesuits 
induced Louis XIV. to apply to Pope Clement XI. to con- 
demn it. This he did in a bull commencing with the 
words Unigenitus Dei Filius. 

Q. Where and by whom was the controversy con- 
cerning the Trinity renewed? 

A. By Mr Whiston, a professor of mathematics in 
Cambridge, about a.d. 1706. He eventually became an 
Ariam 

Q. Give some account of the rise and nature of the 
Bangorian controversy. 

A. Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, having published 
" A Preservative against the Principles and Practice of 
the Nonjurors, " and soon afterwards a sermon, which 
George I. ordered to be printed, entitled " The Nature 
of the Kingdom of Christ," in which he maintained, in a 
confused manner, that the Church was independent of the 
state ; that an established Church was a mere human 
institution ; that the true Church did not require any other 
than spiritual sanctions ; that Christ was the legislator 
and judge of the Church ; and, lastly, that no human or 
temporal power ought to violate his supremacy. A violent 
contest arose, and was continued for several years. The 
convocation censured Hoadley's opinions, and Drs Snape 
and Sherlock wrote against them, upon which the king 
removed them from their chaplaincies, and prorogued the 
convocation, which has never been again allowed to meet 
for the transaction of business. 



Cam&rftge aBmbersfftp Cjrammattmt papers 

FOR THE 

CEOSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 



Note :— These Papers are only a part of those set in the Examination for this 
Scholarship, and are apparently intended to elicit such a knowledge of the Fathers, 
and Church History, as is required in the present Theological Examination. 



1833. 
^Professor Turton/] 

1. State the birth-place of Justin Martyr ; and the schools of 
philosophy in which he studied : — state also to what Philosopher he 
chiefly refers in his writings. 

2. To whom was Justin Martyr's First Apology inscribed ? Give 
a brief account of its contents. 

3. Translate into English the following passage : 

Av&pcoTroi ovv Tii/e? ev IouBoucu? yeyeurjvTai .dnrdyecrdai. 

Justin Martyr's 1st. Apot. § 31. 

4. At what period did the Ptolemy above mentioned live ? 

5. Is the name of Herod correct ? If not, what name do you 
propose to substitute? What conjectural emendations have been ap- 
plied to the passage ? 

6. What were the pretensions of Barchochebas 1 What was the 
origin, progress, and termination of the circumstance alluded to ; and 
what were the consequences ? What indication of time is here 
afforded ? • 



1. What was the error of the Docetse ; and from what did they 
derive their name ? 

2. State the time at which Arius lived. State also his opinions 
respecting the Nature and Divinity of Christ : also why his expression 
deov Zid trapKOS iraQovTa xa\ dvacrTavra is objectionable. 

3. What was the Heresy of the Patripassians ? Was this name 
assumed, or given ? Mention the names of persons to whom it was 
applied, and give the periods at which they lived. 

14—5 



322 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

4. What are the distinctions between the Nicene and the Con- 
stantinopolitan Creeds ? Give the dates and places of the Councils at 
which they were adopted ; and state whether any and what additions 
have been since made to them. 

5. What were the opinions of Nestorius ? When did he live — 
by whom was he opposed — by what Council was he condemned ? 

6. By whom, and at what time is the doctrine of Transubstantia- 
tion said to have been introduced into the Church ? 

7. At what time did the Religion of Mahomet take its rise, and 
what were the probable causes of its success, as far as Christians were 
concerned ? 

8. State the doctrines of Socinus, on the following subjects : 
(1) The Nature of Christ : (2) The worship of Christ : 
(3) The Atonement : (4) Reconciliation with God. 

What appellation is assumed by his followers in modern times ; and 
in what respects do they differ from him on those subjects ? 



[Professor Hollingworth.] 

Translate into English the following passages : 

Oi/'tw ZrJTa ovpavloo Zwa/xei kcu <rvvepyia, eyepcupou. 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. n. cap. 3. 

0/ Qe<r7ce<noi nai to? aXr]6(a<i deoirpeitel^, (pri^xi A0705. 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. in. cap. 24. 

1. By whom and at what time was the custom of reckoning from 
the year of Christ's birth introduced into the Church ? 

2. To what year from the building of Rome is the first year of 
this sera to be referred ? 

3. By what rule was the Festival of Easter governed in the 
Ancient Church ? What was the difference in this respect between 
the Eastern and Western Churches % What practice does the Church 
of England follow % 

4. Distinguish between AiotKticris and YlapoiKia. State when 
Patriarchs were established, and their numbers at different times. 

5. From what part of the ancient Church Service were the Cate- 
chumens excluded ? 

6. At what time did the Roman Empire become Christian — and 
under what Emperor? — What was then the relative proportion of 
Heathens and Christians ? 

7. What ancient Heathen Writers have alluded to the Christian 
Rites ; and what representations do they give of those rites ? 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 323 

8. Distinguish between Heresy and Schism — give an account of 
the Donatists — the time and place where they appeared — and state 
before what Emperor they brought their controversy. 

9. Under what Sovereigns of Europe did the Reformation begin — 
who were the principal Authors of it — what was in its favour ? 



1834. 
[Professor Turton.] 

1. Translate into English the following passage, from the 
Epistle of Eusebius to Alexander of Alexandria, in behalf of the 
Arians; and point out those parts of it which you think the most 
favourable to the Arian tenets : — 

Kal KaTrjjopeT avroov to. ypdpLjxara, cos XeyovTcov, 6ti o Y<o? 

€k tov p.r] oi/to? yeyovev w? ek 7wi/ ttcivtwv* ol ce Trporjveynav 

eavTcav ypajXfxaTe'iov, o irpoq ce Trerroi,r]Kacnv' ev a) tj/i/ eavTcov 
* ****** 

avTov. el ce fxii jxovos avTos 1<ttlv 6 wV, aXXa k<x\ Yi'o? t]v 6 wV, kcu 

7rw9 tov ovTCt 6 (£v eyewrjcrev ; outw? yap av hvo e'lrj tci ovtci, 

2. What, according to Irenaeus, were the opinions of Cerinthus 
and his followers, respecting the nature of Jesus Christ 1 — It has been 
held that the expression in the Nicene Creed, ek eva Kvpiov 'Irja-ovu 
XpurTov — as well as the expression, ek eva 'Irjaovv Xpio-rov, in 
Creeds of earlier date — was intended to oppose those opinions: in 
what way may it be thought to oppose them ? 

3. What were the opinions of Paul of Samosata, respecting our 
Lord's nature ; and by what Councils were his opinions condemned ? 

4. What were the opinions of Apollinarius respecting our Lord's 
nature ? When did Apollinarius flourish — what was his condition in 
life — and who were his principal opponents ? 

5. Give some account of the arguments employed by Athenagoras, 
in his Treatise on the Resurrection ; and translate into English the fol- 
lowing passage (ad finem) : 

Tovtov S' ££ dvdyKqs eTro/xevov, Se? 7rai/rco? BtK^c. 

6. In the eleventh article of the Apostles' Creed, we find in the 
Greek crapKos dvd<xra(nv — and in the Latin, carnis resurrectionem ; — 
What reason has been assigned for using the words crapKos, carnis. 
rather than aco/jLaros, corporis, and by whom has this been particu- 
larly mentioned ? What alteration was made in the expression of 
this article, by the Church of Aquileia, and with what view % 



324 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

7. What opinions, respecting the Resurrection, were opposed by 
Tertullian in his Treatise de Resurrectione Carnis; and by what 
arguments did he oppose them ? 

8. Put down, so far as you recollect them, the terms in which the 
Resurrection of man is mentioned in the Greek Testament. 

9. State the peculiar opinions of the Donatists : state also in what 
region and at what period the Donatists made their appearance ; and 
give some account of the origin and progress of the schism caused by 
them. 

10. State the principal points in dispute during the Pelagian con- 
troversy ; also the period at which the controversy commenced, and 
the persons by whom it was carried on. 



[Professor Hollingworth.J 

Translate into English the following passage : 

Ttoi/ Be '€tt\ Trjs 'A<rta<? enricrKOTrwv to Trakai RiKropos. 

Eusebius, Hist. Heel. Lib. v. cap. 24. 

1 . By what decrees of Councils has the present Canon of the New 
Testament been established, and what are the several books which 
they respectively enumerate ? 

2. At what time did Polycarp live — with what Bishop of Rome 
had he a controversy about Easter — at what place did he suffer mar- 
tyrdom ? 

3. How many persecutions by the Heathen took place before 
Constantine ? State the time at which, and the emperor under whom, 
they severally occurred. 

4. Give the geographical position of the several Churches to 
which the Apostles addressed Epistles. 

5. What is the distinction between the Nicene and the Constan- 
tinopolitan Creed ? Give the dates and places of the two Councils at 
which they were drawn up, and state whether any, and what addition 
has been made since. 

6. When did Dionysius Exiguus live, and of what sera is he the 
author ? 

7. How many General Councils are reckoned before the conclusion 
of the seventh century ? State the times and places of each respectively. 

8. Give the time of the rise of Mahometism, and the probable 
cause of its success, as far as Christians were concerned. 

9. By whom and at what time was Christianity preached to the 
Saxons in England ? What was the state of Religion in South Britain 
at that time ? 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 325 

1835. 
^Professor Turtox/] 

1. What were the opinions of Beron and Helix, respecting the 
two natures of Christ ? In what were they different from those of 
Apollinarius ? 

Translate the following passage into English : — 

Ato k<x\ kciB' tifj-as d.\r]d(t)s yevofxevos cli/dpcaTros dyadou. 

S. Hippolytus, contra Beronem et Helicem, Vol i. p. 226, Ed. Fabr. 

2. "VVTiat were the opinions of the Arians, respecting the nature 
of the Holy Spirit ? How did those opinions differ from the Orthodox 
doctrines ? By what means did the Arians avail themselves of the 
text, John i. 3, iravTa c)t ccvtov iyivcro' kcu X^P^ a vTov eyeveTo 
ovce ev o yeyovev, in support of their opinions on this subject ? 

3. "WTiat were the opinions of the Macedonians, respecting the 
nature of the Holy Spirit; and in what did the Macedonians differ 
from the Orthodox on the subject ? In what different Councils was 
the Macedonian Heresy condemned ? 

4. What alteration of the Nicene Creed was made at the Council 
of Constantinople % 

5. Under what Pope was filioque introduced into the Nicene 
Creed ; and what part was taken by Photius in the matter ? 



)teKCtKOVVT€$. 



[Professor Hollixgworth.]] 

1. Traxslate into English the following passage : 
"Ocr^? fxev K<xi oiroias irpo tov nad j//.ia?. . . 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. viii. cap. 1. 

2. To what century does this passage relate, and to what per- 
secution ? 

3. At what period was the eera of Diocletian used, and by what 
sera was it succeeded 1 Who was the author of the new sera, and on 
what principles did he proceed % 

4. What effect had the accession of Constantine the Great on the 
fortunes of the Christian Church ? Mention those parts of his personal 
and public conduct which have relation to the religion of Christ. 

5. How long after Christ's ascension did the twelve Apostles 
remain in Judaea before they separated to preach the Gospel to the 
nations ? 

6. From what time do you date the origin of the Monastic Orders; 
in what division of the Church did they first appear ? Give a short 
account of their progress. 



326* CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

7. Under what Emperor was the third General Council assembled 
at Ephesus ? Who presided ? Whose opinions were condemned by it ? 

3. When did the Reformation of Religion in England begin? 
By what circumstances was it principally promoted ? 

9. In what reign were the Thirty Articles of Religion agreed to ? 
Under what Archbishop of Canterbury? Enumerate the several 
sanctions they received, and the order in which they occurred. 

10. At what time did the last Review of the English Liturgy 
take place ? Give an account of the principal alterations then made. 
Enumerate the several sanctions it received, and the order in which 
those sanctions occurred. 



1836. 
TProfessor Turton.] 

1. What was the Heresy of Noetus ? Did the Heresy originate 
with him ? If not, state the names and times of those, holding the 
same opinions, who preceded and succeeded Noetus. 

2. In whose writings are the tenets of Noetus particularly contro- 
verted ? Translate into English the following passage :— 

0eo? fxvvos virap-^oov kcl\ /xjySeV Troirja-avra w<? rjQeXtfcrev. 

S. Hippolytus, contra Noetum, § 10, 11, Vol. h. p. 13, Ed. Fabr. 

3. In the preceding passage, how do you interpret irpoTepav 
(pwvrjv (pdeyyofxevos ? What errors of Valentinus, Marcion and Cerin- 
thus are alluded to, towards the end of the passage ? 

4. What were the opinions of Praxeas opposed by Tertullian? 
Was the Treatise against Praxeas written before, or after, Tertullian 
became a Montanist ? Give some account of the opinions of Montanus. 

5. What was the Nestorian Heresy ? At what time did it arise ? 
By what Bishop of Rome was it opposed ? Give the title of his work. 

6. In what way was the doctrine of the Sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper made to bear upon the question at issue in the Nestorian con- 
troversy ; and what are we to infer as to the tenets of the Church of 
Rome, at that time, respecting that Sacrament ? 

7. Translate : — Certe sacramenta, quae sumimus, corporis et san- 
guinis Christi divina res est, propter quod et per eadem Divinae 
efficimur consortes naturae, et tamen esse non desinit substantia vel 
natura panis et vini. Et certe imago et similitudo corporis et san- 
guinis Christi in actione mysteriorum celebrantur. Satis ergo nobis 
evidenter ostenditur, hoc nobis in ipso Christo Domino sentiendum, 
quod in ejus imagine prontemur, celebramus, et sumimus; ut, sicut 
in hanc, scilicet in Divinam, transeunt, Sancto Spiritu perficiente, sub- 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 327 

stantiam, permanentes tamen in suae proprietate naturae, sic illud ipsum 
mysterium principale, (cujus nobis efficientiam virtuteroque veraciter 
represent ant,) his ex quibus constat proprie perinanentibus, unum 
Christum, quia integrum verumque, permanere demonstrant. 

E. ''Clcnrep tolvvv tu <rvjx(3o\a tov DeenroTiKov crco/xaTO? re 
Kai ai'fxaTos aXXa /xev elcri ttoo t^? lepaTiKtjs e7riKXr]<rect)$ } fxeTCt ce ye 
ty\v €TriKXr]aiv }X6TapaXXeTeti kcu eTepa yiveTat' ovtoo to ZecnroTiKov 
cco/xa [xeTct Trjv dvaXtj\jsiv eU Ttjv ovcriav /xeTef3Xr]6r] Trjv de'iav. 
O. 'EaXw? ah v(pr]ve<z apKVcriV Ovhe yap fierd tov dyietcr/xov tcI 
Ixv&Tixd crvfxpoXa Trjs eiKeias e^icrTaTeu epvcreoos, fxevei yelp eiri t>/c 
TrpoTepas overlap, tcai tov cryriixaToi, nai tov e'/Boi/s, kcii opaTci 
eerTi Ka\ dirTCi, ola xa\ irpoTepov r)v. 

8. By what Council, holden at what time, was Nestorius con- 
demned ? Translate the following passage : 

Tovtcov Tolvvv dvayvooaOevTiov, (apicrev Kadd e'lprjTeti. 

Cone. Ephes. act. vi. See Bixgham, Lay-Baptism, n. i. 4. 



[Professor Hollingworth.J 

Translate : — O /xev ovv T779 'Pco/xa'uav <rvjx/3e/3t]Ke. 

O Be SccyKTo? Ka£ avros virep(Se(iXr]jX€v()i<i .yeveerOeu. 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. v. Procemium et cap. 1. 

1. To what year of our Lord is the seventeenth year of the 
Emperor Antoninus Verus to be referred, and which of the Antonines 
is here meant % 

2. By whom, and at what time, was the custom of reckoning from 
the year of Christ's birth introduced into the Church ? 

3. In what way did the Emperor Trajan modify the persecution 
against the Christians, and what was the cause of his interference ? 

4. What particulars does the younger Pliny state respecting the 
Christians of his day, and to what province does his information 
relate ? 

5. By what rule was the festival of Easter governed in the 
Ancient Church 1 What was the difference in this respect between 
the Eastern and Western Churches ? What practice does the Church 
of England follow % 

6. Give an account of the great Patriarchates in the Christian 
Church — their number, extent, and time of their institution, 



328 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

1837. 

[Professor Turton.] 

Translate (Just. Mart. Dial. § 48 ) : 
Kcu 6 TpiKpwv, Kctl irepi tovtcov bcra <ppovei<i hihaydeTcri. 

1. What was the birth-place of Justin Martyr, and under what 
Emperor did he suffer martyrdom ? To what sects of philosophy had 
he been attached, before his conversion to Christianity? 

2. To whom was his first Apology addressed? In what manner 
does he refute the charge of Atheism brought against Christians? 

3. Was the Dialogue with Trypho prior, or posterior, to the first 
Apology ? On what evidence does your opinion rest ? 

4. One objection to Christianity, alleged by Trypho, is, that 
Elias was to be the precursor of the Messiah. In what manner does 
Justin reply to the objection? 

Translate : kcu uvto\ hecpa/xev elvai fxeTavoiav fxiav, kcu hid \ov- 

Tpou fxeTcivoovvTuiv, kcu eTTicTT p£(povTosv kcu /jieTaixeXofxevtav. 

1. What sects in the second and third centuries, held that there 
is no " locus poenitentise" for grievous sinners after Baptism ? On 
what considerations was their doctrine founded ? 

2. State the decision of the Church of England on this subject ; 
and mention the sect against which it was immediately directed. 

3. In the early ages of the Church, there appear to have been 
four orders of penitents. By what names and circumstances was 
each order distinguished, and what was the place assigned to each ? 



1838. 

[Professor Turton.] 

SUBJECT FOR A LATIN THEME. 

■ hid Trjs eTTKpaveias tov <rcoTt]po<? tj/jiuiv 'Ir/crov XpiCTov, 

Ka.Tap'yeoravTOS jxev tov ddvarov, (pcariaavro^ ce ^oorju icai d(pdap- 
<riav hid tov evayyeXiov. 

1. What was the difference of opinion, between Eunomius and 
Macedonius, respecting the Son, and the Holy Spirit? By what 
name, indicating their peculiar heresy, were the Macedonians known ? 
Write down the clause which was added to the Nicene Creed, in con- 
sequence of that heresy. By what Pope was an addition afterwards 
made to the clause ; and what were the consequences to the Church ? 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 329 

2. What was the difference of opinion, between the Donatists and 
the Orthodox, respecting the Holy Catholic Church ? By what Father 
was the opinion of Donatus, on this subject, opposed ? 

3. When were the words Whose kingdom shall have no end added 
to the Nicene Creed ? To whose heresy were they opposed % Give 
an account of that heresy. 

4. Give a short account of St Augustine. What were the prin- 
cipal subjects in dispute between him and Pelagius? State his reasons 
for writing his City of God, and his mode of treating the subject. 

5. What were the three points principally discussed by Athena- 
goras, in his Legatio pro Christianis? To whom was that work ad- 
dressed ? Translate the following passage, from Ms Treatise on the 
Resurrection : 

Het/i£e<x#u) he p.r]oe\<;, el tiju OavaTco xa\ ava.crTa.GLv. §16. 

6. Give a short account of Tertullian, and his opinions at different 
periods of his life. What was the object of his Treatise against 
Praxeas? Translate the following (adv. Praxean, c. iii.) : 

Simplices enim quique, ne dixerim imprudentes continetur. 

7. Give a short account of Cyprian. On what occasions were the 
Treatises de Unitate Ecclesice and de Lapsis written? Translate the 
following, from the latter (about one third from the beginning) : 

Sed tormenta postmodum ventura erant, et cruciatus voluntatis. 



1839. 

[Professor Turtox.] 
To be translated into English Prose : 

I. H tolvvv evcrTacrLQ awroov KCU tf Trpocr(paTo<z TOV UTTO- 
<T-£i(rfAaTO$ a'tpecns irpos tyjv eKKXrjcrtav tyjv aWlav e<rve Toiaw}]v. 
Kiopii Ti5 elvai XeyeTai ev Trj Kara ty]v Qpvytav aLvaia, KaXovaevt] 
A.poaj3av To'vvopa' evBa <pacr\ Tiva tu>v veoTriaTwv TrpuoTWS, iNJoi/- 
Tavov Tovvopa nard T parov 'Ao-f'a? dvdv7rarov, ev eTrtdv/jiia. \//uy^5 
dp.erpu) (pi\o7rpcoTeia<; BoWa 7rapolov els eavrov tw avriKeifxevia, 

■55- •* * -* * -55- * * 

d£iav vir avTtvv Ti/W/xei/os, vire^ijyeipe re kcu Trpocre^eKavcrev avrccv 
Trjv dwoKeKoiprjpevrjv dird rrjs Ka-r d\t]deiav 7rzcrTeco? havoiav. 

II. "Oti pev ovv ko\ ev Tavrrj Ttj fiovXojxai. 

Just. Mart. Dial, cum Tryphone, § 70. 

III. Igitur quoniam et rudes quique de compararetur. 

Tertullian, de Resur. Christ, c. v. 



330 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

1 . Tillemont and other modern writers agree with Theodoret, in 
thinking that the heresies of the first two centuries may be divided 
into two classes. Explain the general principles of those classes. 

2. In what year, under what Tope, and in what Council was 
Transubstantiation decreed to be an article of faith ? 

3. The eleventh article of the Apostles' Creed is " The Resur- 
rection of the body." What were the corresponding terms in Greek 
and Latin ; and why was of the body not thought sufficient ? What 
was the expression of the Church of Aquileia ? 

4. What were the opinions of Synesius respecting the Resurrec- 
tion ? Give the leading particulars of the life of Synesius. 

5. State the origin and progress of the controversy de tribus 
capitulis, in the sixth century. K 

6. Explain the opinions of Sergius of Constantinople, and give 
some account of the controversies which they excited. 

7. State the three principal causes of the disputes, in the ninth 
century, between the Eastern and Western Churches ? 



[Professor Corrie.] 

1. Mention the names of the most eminent of those Philosophers 
who were converted to Christianity during the second century. 

2. What were the distinguishing tenets of the Alexandrian Theo- 
logy as taught by Origen ? 

3. ToaravTrj Be eiV/fyero tco 'Qpiyevei eTriKCtTCMTKevacras. 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. vi. cap. 16. 
Translate this passage. What object had Origen in view in com- 
piling the work here mentioned ? What is now known of it ? 

4. (1) When did Mahomet first assume the character of a 
religious Teacher? (2) By what nations has his false religion been 
embraced? (3) To what external causes has the rapid spread of 
Mahometanism been ascribed ? 

5. State briefly (1) The causes which led to the great Papal 
schism : (2) How long did it continue ? (3) By what means was it 
terminated ? 

6. In what countries are the Doctrines and Discipline of the^ 
Greek Church acknowledged ? 

7. In what respects do the Reformed differ from the Lutherans ? 
3. Against what Papal encroachments were the Statutes of Pro- 
visors, and of Praemunire enacted in this country ? And when ? 

9. (1) Give a succinct account of Bede ; and (2) ofAlcuin. 

10. Recite some of those circumstances which chiefly contributed 
to bring about the Reformation in England. 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 331 

1840. 

[Professor Turton.] 
To be translated into English : 

*H./j.€?<s yap dhe\(po\ na\ YleTpov na\ tous vjmvS 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. vi. cap. 1 2. 

Oacri yap tou? p.ev irporepovi aVavra? evpeTrjv ; 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Lib. v. cap. 28. 

Age jam, qui voles curiositatem melius exercere sylvestres. 

Tertullian, De Prcescriptione Hcereticorum, c. 36. 

1 . State the various opinions of the following sects, respecting the 
person of Jesus Christ :—(l) The early Oriental Heretics; (2) The 
Jewish Heretics; (3) The Arians and Semi-Arians; (4) The 
Photinians; (5) The Nestorians; (6) The Eutychians ; (7) The 
Monothelites ; (8) The Adoptionarii ; (9) The earlier and later 
Socinians; (10) The Anabaptists :— and mention the times when the 
leading advocates of such opinions flourished. 

2. What was the heresy of Macedonius, and by what Council 
was it condemned ? Give some account of Macedonius. 

3. State the distinguishing tenets of the Pelagians and Semi- 
Pelagians; and mention the principal writers on each side of the 
questions discussed. 

4. Give a sketch of the rise and progress of the Millenarian 
doctrines. 



[Professor Blunt.] 

1. What reasons are there, derived from internal evidence, for 
supposing the Epistle of Barnabas, though very early, not to be the 
work of Barnabas of the Acts ? 

What may be supposed to be the object of the Epistle ? 

2. What are the Divisions of the work of Hermas, so called ; and 
to which of them only, does the title " Shepherd," properly apply % 

3. What called forth the Epistle of Clemens to the Corinthians ? 
How doth it serve to illustrate St Paul's Epistles to the same Church, 
and to confirm their truth ? To which of the Epistles of the New 
Testament does it sometimes bear a strong resemblance ? 

Shew from internal evidence that Clemens did not interfere with 
the Church of Corinth in his character of Bishop of Rome, or as 

matter of right What is the first instance on record of the Bishop of 

Rome attempting this interference with foreign Churches, on a ques- 



332 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

tion that agitated the early Church ? What the second instance in 
the following century, on another question? And was such inter- 
ference acknowledged in either case ? What two of the Fathers were 
successively distinguished in these two controversies ? Out of what 
circumctances did the usurpation itself probably arise ? 

4. State briefly the line of argument taken by Bishop Pearson in 
defence of the authority of the shorter Epistles of Ignatius. Which 
of the Fathers furnishes the more ample materials for determining 
the question, by the numerous particulars in them to which he refers, 
and by which we may test the Epistles we possess X State some of 
those particulars. 

On what question is the testimony of these Epistles, if genuine, 
decisive ? Can you quote any short maxims for Churchmen to observe, 
which are found in them ? 

How was it, may we suppose, that our early divines, such as Jewel 
and Hooker, did not make so much account of them as we might 
expect ? What are the Churches in which Eusebius actually traces 
the Episcopal succession % 

5. 'Y/ue?9 he, Tavnra Tcnreivias e^t^yovfj-evoi, 7ro\\rjv acrOeveiav 
Ka.Ta\j/r] — (pi^eade tou Oeov, el Tavn-a ovt(o \//-iAeo<? duovotTe, kcu 
fxrj Tt)v cvva/jiiv e^erd^oiTe twv elpr]fxevcov. (Dialog. § 112.) 

Construe this passage ; explain the principle of interpretation of 
the Old Testament which Justin Martyr is here recommending ; and 
shew the manner in which he applies it, by any of the numerous 
examples to be drawn from him. State moreover the bias Justin 
might be under from the nature of the work in which this passage 
occurs, to push the principle to an extreme. Do you remember any 
instances in which St Paul adopts the same principle ? 

6. Translate the following passage from Justin, and state how it 
bears on a doctrine and a practice of the Church of Rome. 

Kcu t] Trjs cre/^jBa'Aeco? he Trpocr<popd, oj dvhpes . . . . c . fiefirjXovv. 

(Dialog. § 41.) 

7. Shew by a reference to particulars, that Romanism cannot be 
fairly said to have been the ancient religion of England. 

8. How would you reply to the question, where was the religion 
of Protestants before Luther ? 

9. Shew that the unity of the Roman Catholic Church never has 
been so perfect as some assert. 

10. Shew briefly the difference between Wickliffe and Cranmer 
as Reformers. 

11. How happened it that the Reformation, in England, did so 
much less violence to Church principles, than the Reformation on the 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 833 

Continent ; and so left the Church of England in a more unassailable 
position than the Protestant communities abroad 1 

12. What were the chief works put forth by the Reformers under 
King Henry ; what under King Edward ; and what under Queen 
Elizabeth ; and what does the series of them indicate with respect to 
the course of the Reformation ? 



1841. 
[[Professor Turton.] 

1. Give a short explanation of each of the following articles of 
the Apostles' Creed : The Holy Catholic Church — The Communion of 
Saints — The forgiveness of sins — The resurrection of the body — The 
life everlasting ; adding in each case the different terms (if any) in 
which the article has been expressed, and the reasons assigned for the 
alterations. 

2. Give some account of the introduction of filioque into the 
Nicene Creed; and state the arguments for and against its intro- 
duction. 

3. In what respects are the opinions of Noetus and Sabellius said 
to have differed ? Mention some of the principal writers against each. 

4. Give a short account of Irenseus. Against whom was his 
work on Heresies mainly directed? Translate the following into 
English {adv. Hcsr. i. viii.) : 

ToiauTt]^ Be Trjs i/Vo^eo-ew? avTcov ovar]^ tov Oeov. 

5. State some of the leading opinions of Hermogenes, as opposed 
by Tertullian in his tract against that Heretic. 

6. What was Tertullian's object in writing the treatise de testi- 
monio animce ? 

7. What were the leading doctrines opposed by Tertullian, in his 
treatise against Marcion? Translate the following passage into 
English {contra Marcionem, in. viii.) : 

Quomodo verax habebitur in occulto, tamfallax resurrectio est. 

8. Give some account of the tenets of Paul of Samosata. 

9. State the subject in dispute between Cyprian and Stephen, 
Bishop of Rome ; together with the opinions maintained by each. 



[Professor Blunt/] 



1. What are the two heresies of which the Epistles of Ignatius 
speak ; and to which, all mention that is made in them of any par- 



334 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

ticular heterodox doctrine may be referred? Can you draw any 
conclusion as to the date of the Epistles from this? Is there any 
thing in their manner of speaking of Bishops, Priests and Deacons, 
which furnishes a conclusion to the same effect ? 

2. State any incidents relating to our Saviour, mentioned by 
Justin Martyr which are not recorded in the Gospels ; and whether 
one of them is not so mentioned as if Justin felt his authority for it to 
be questionable. Did any of the kindred of our Lord in the flesh 
long survive him ; and what is the last account we have of them, and 
by whom given ? 

3. Justin Martyr does not quote the Gospels by the names of 
their authors ; what names does he give to the documents he quotes ; 
and what reasons, apart from the consideration of the closest resem- 
blance, can you assign, to shew that our Gospels were his ? 

4. What circumstance would account for Justin not feeling it 
necessary to quote the Gospels to the letter ? What Book of the Old 
Testament does he quote most literally; and how might this happen? 
What is the only Book of the New Testament to which he refers by 
name ? 

5. Translate the following passage : 

'O Ao'-yo? Se tov Oeov 6<tt\v 6 vlos avTOV dvOpcoTrovs. 

Justini Mabtyris Apol. i. § 63. 

6. What is the subject of the work of Theophilus of Antioch? 
To whom is it addressed ? Does the character of the party, as given 
by Theophilus, furnish an answer to one of Gibbon's insinuations ? 

J. Translate the following passage : — eJo-ai/Vco? ko.\ al TpeTs 
Vixepai (f. ins. nrpo) twi/ (puxrTtjpiav yeyovv'iai tvttoi ela\ Trjs TpiciSos, 

TOV 06OU, KCtl TOV XojOV CtVTOV, KGU Tfj<i <TO(pia<Z CtVTOV" TCTCtpTO) 

(f. ToVto) ecrTiv avupooTios o 7T|0ocr3e>/9 tov 0WTO9, 'tva rj Geo?) 
A070?, <ro(pia, avBpwiros. What is there remarkable in this passage? 

8. State the several circumstances which gave to the Church of 
Rome eventually the precedence amongst the Churches which it hap- 
pened to acquire ; referring to primitive authorities for your facts. 

9. What event chiefly contributed to the change of the early 
Church from Jew to Gentile ? and what turn was thus given to several 
questions which were matters of debate in the early Church ? 

10. When did the division of the Eastern and Western Churches 
take place? what numerical proportion to each other might those 
Churches bear at their separation ? and what were the chief points of 
difference between them ? 

11. Was the Nicene Creed, as it now stands, entirely settled at 
the Council of Nice ? 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 335 

12. When did the Council of Trent begin; and when end? 
What was the great object of it ? What points, before left undeter- 
mined, were made absolute at this Council ? 

13. What is the Creed, and when drawn up, which every Romish 
Bishop, Priest, &c, is obliged to profess on his appointment to a 
benefice, &c. ; and what are its chief articles ? 

14. When was the order of the Jesuits founded, and by whom ? 
What event called the order into existence ? What was their object, 
and how was it pursued % 

15. Can you shew by any reference to authorities, that the Ro- 
manists continued in the communion of our Church for some time 
after the Reformation ? what event originated their separation from 
us ; and what was the date of that event ? What other events 
widened the schism % 



1842. 
[Professor Turton.]] 



1. State the following particulars respecting each of the first 
four General Councils: (1) By whom it was convened ; (2) Where 
held; (3) In what year; and (4) For the condemnation of what 
Heresies. Give a brief account of those Heresies. 

2. Translate into English the following Canon; and give some 
account of such of the Heresies mentioned in it as you have not 
touched upon in the preceding article. 

Toi)<? 7rpo<rTtde[J.evovs rrj 6p6oho£la kou Ttj p.epidt tcov creo^o- 
fxevcov awo alpeTixwv cSe^o/xefla Kara Trjv VTroreray/jiev^v diroXovdiav 
KCti (rvvqdeiav. 'Apeiavovs p.eu Kai MctKec)oi/iai/oi)<? na\ 2a/3/9«T<ai/oi/? 
ko.\ NouartajW? tovs XeyovTas iavrov<; KaBapovs nat apio-rovs, Ka\ 
toi)? Tecrcraoe<7KCuBeKaTiTa? e'lrovv TeTpaZ'iTas, Kai A7roX\ivapi<jTd? 
Ze^opLeda SiZovras A</3eA.Aou9, /cat dvade/jLaTi^ovras nraaav a'ipecriv, 
fxti (ppovov&av (J? (ppovel tj dyia tov Qeov KaBoXiKtj kcu diroa-roXiKti 
€KK\r]<Tia' Kai o-cppayityuievovs tjroi xpiofjievovs irptaTov t&> dyitp 
fxvpcp, to tc /£6Tco7rov Kai Tou? o<p6 'aAjUou? Kai tcc<? p?vas Ka\ TO 
crrofxa Kai Ta cora. Kai <T(ppay'i\'ovTe$ avTov?., Xeyo/nev' <j<ppay\<; 
d(opea<s TlvevfxaTos ayiov. HLvvofjuavovs fxev toi tovs eU p.tav Kard- 
Zvciv {3a7TTi(^o/j.evov<s ko\ Moi/TayicrTa? tov<s evTavQa Xeyop.evovi 
<&pvya<s, Kai 2a/3eAAiai/oi/? tov? vlotraTopiav SildarKovras, kou erepd 
Tiva ^aXcjrd TroiovvTas* kcu ra? a A Act? iracrai alptcreis (errciZij 



•336 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

ttoWoi el<TLv evrauda, fxa\i<TTa ol wtto t^s TaXaTw "yyonfja^ £pX<>- 
fxevoi)' ttclvtcis toi/9 aV ctvTcov OeXovTcts 7rpo(TTide<rdai Trj opdo- 
6o£ia to? "EAA.77i/as beyojxeOa, kcii ty\v irpooTrjv rj/mepav Troiovfxev 
avTovs Xpio-Ttai/oy?, Trjv ce devTepav KaTY]^ovp\evov<?, elra Ttjv 
TpiTrjv e^opKi^o/jLev avrovs p.€T<x tov efxcpvaav nrp'tTOv ek to r npo- 
(Twttov K<x\ ek to. wTa avrwv. kcu oi/'tw? Karrj-^ovixev avTOvs, k<xi 
•woiov/xev avTovs ypovi^eiv eU ty)v 6KK\r}<riav, kcli anpoaadai twv 
ypacpuiv' kcu tot€ avTovs /3a7TT/£ojuei'. 

3. Give a brief account of Tertullian, and his opinions at dif- 
ferent periods of his life. What was the object of his Treatise against 
Praxeas ? Translate the following passage into English : 

Obmutescat, obmutescat ista blasphemia; sufficiat est. 

Tertull. adv. Praxean, § 29. 

4. Give some account of Pelagius and his doctrines; together 
with a view of the origin and progress of the controversy which arose 
with respect to his opinions. 

5. What were the opinions of Synesius respecting the Resurrec- 
tion % Give the leading particulars of the life of Synesius. 

6. Explain the opinions of Sergius of Constantinople, and give 
some account of the controversies which they excited, 



^Professor Blunt.] 



1. Translate the following passage into Latin : 

''Qonrep ovv o Kyoto? avev tov YIctTpos ovhev . . . . „ .■^oopt]cravTa. 

S. Ignatii Ep. ad Magnesios, § vn. 

2. Under what emperor was the persecution at Antioch which 
proved fatal to Ignatius ? To whom did Ignatius write to take care 
that a successor to himself was appointed in the see ? After what 
manner did he direct that appointment to be made 1 To what churches 
did he send letters % What was the general purport of them ? 

3. Translate the following passage into English: 

'H/^e?5 be p.6Ta tglvto. Xoiirov aei tovtcov yiv€Tai. 

Justini Martyris Apol. i. § 67. 

4. What is the subject of Justin Martyr's Dialogue ; and what 
the line of argument he takes ? 

5. Translate the following passages into English : 

To oe ev TIvev/jLCt to ayiov e^iaoodevTas elvai. 

Iren^bus, adv. Hcer. Lib. i. cap. 1, ad init. 

Sic igitur manifeste ostendente Domino, quoniam fortem vicit. 

Ibid. Lib. v. cap. 18. 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 387 

6. Where did Irenseus probably pass his youth 1 What church 
did he eventually govern ? Who was the heretic who chiefly dis- 
turbed the quarter where his labours lay ? By what title does he 
address the party for whom he writes his work ? What does he 
describe the object of it to be, and in what terms 1 Under what name 
or names does he frequently refer to an authority prior to himself? 

7. What portion of the work of Irenceus remains in the Greek ? 
W-hat is supposed to be the date of the old translation ; and what are 
the grounds of such supposition ? What do you understand by the 
terms in the Greek, /3v6o<;, <TLjr], TrXt'jpw^a, avQjyia, 7-erpa?, oyloas, 
TrpofioAt], €vdv/j.r](TiQ, olnovofxla ? And in the Latin; ' conditio/ 
' creatura/ ( redemptio/ ' invocatio/ f labes ;' and into what Greek 
words would you translate them ? 

8. Give a few instances of texts in the New Testament, in which 
Irenseus considers the sacred writers to have been contemplating errors 
of the Gnostics. 

9. One of the Tracts of Tertullian is entitled, De Praescriptione 
Heereticorum ; what do you understand by that title ? W 7 hat is the 
subject of his Tract De Corona ? 

10. W T hat were the several sources from which the Reformers 
drew their materials, when compiling the Book of Common Prayer ? 
"What are the chief differences between the first and second Prayer 
Books of King Edward the Sixth ? Which of the two was mostly 
adhered to in the revision of the Prayer Book under Queen Elizabeth ? 
What principal changes were then introduced ; and what subsequently, 
after the Hampton Court and Savoy conferences? What are the 
most remarkable differences in the office for the Holy Communion, 
between the English and Scotch Prayer Books 1 



1843. 
[Professor Ollivant.] 

Translate into English : 

I. 2Y fxev tclvtu Ziep-^ofxevo^j dycnrr]T€ evedrfKiacre. 

Irenseus, adversus Hcereses, Lib. i. cap. 13, fi'. 

II. Ipsse denique heereses a philosophia protulerunt. 

Tertulliax, de Praescriptione Hcereticorum, cap. 7. 

1. Explain the allusion in the words ha tou a\<pa, tea) tou 

(3)]Ta } Kai Bt' dpidjxoiv, k. t. A. What words of Christ were appealed 

to in support of the system alluded to ? Illustrate it by the use made 

of the word "A/3pa^ ae. What is the meaning of oyhods ? How was 

15 



338 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

tj rrpu>Tri oylods arranged by Valentinus ? What practice is referred 
to in the words KaTa<pv(rtj(TavTas koii Ka r rad6fxa.T'i<ravTa<;1 

2. The Gnostics maintained " that Christ taught two doctrines ; 
one, the common and popular, and another which he delivered to his 
disciples only." Dr Burton's Bampton Lectures, p. 53. Confirm 
this statement from Irenseus. What texts of Scripture did they urge 
in defence of this position ? Shew that the Church of Rome defends 
the same system on the same grounds. " The Gnostic systems/' says 
Neander, " admit of a very natural division into two classes, by means 
of their most essential and influential differences." Mr Rose's Trans- 
lation, Vol. ir. p. 43. Briefly explain this distinction. 

3. Give such a comment upon the passage of Tertullian, as will 
explain the allusions contained in it. » 

4. Accesserunt alii haeretici, qui dicuntur secundum Phrygas, sed 
horum non una doctrina est. Id. Ad versus omnes Hsereticos, cap. 
8. Who were the persons here spoken of, and what their tenets? 
Give an account of such persons in modern times, as held the doctrine 
spoken of in the following passage from the Reformatio Legum, de 
hseresibus, cap. 3. " In quo genere...teterrimi illi sunt, qui sacras 
scripturas ad infirmorum tantum debilitatem ablegant et detrudunt, 
sibi sic ipsi prsesidentes, ut earum authoritate se teneri non putant, 
sed peculiarem quendam spiritum jactant, a quo sibi suppeditari aiunt, 
qusecunqne docent aut faciunt." 

5. Who introduced the doctrine that Christ was >//-i\oe avOpwiros, 
and what did he imply by that expression? Where and at what 
time did that Heretic live ? What addition was made to his dogma 
by a subsequent Heretic of the same name? 

6. Usque adeo hunc (Christum) manifestum est in Scripturis 
esse Deum tradi, ut plerique haereticorum Divinitatis ipsius magnitu- 
dine et veritate commoti, ultra modum extendentes honores ejus ausi 
sunt non filium, sed ipsum Deum Patrem promere vel putare. Nova- 
tian, de Regula Fidei, cap. 23. Explain this passage. By whom 
was the doctrine alluded to first maintained ? 

7. What heresies are condemned in the Athanasian Creed ? 



[Professor Blunt.^ 

1. The Epistle of Barnabas naturally divides itself into two 
parts ; what are they respectively about ? What do you understand 
by t< Xeyei tj yvwo-i? ; or other expressions equivalent to it, which 
occur from time to time in that Epistle ? Illustrate your explanation 
by examples'. 



FOR THE CROSSE SCHOLARSHIPS. 339 

2. Mosheim says, that a persuasion of the Christian Ministers 
having succeeded to the character of the Jewish Priesthood— the 
Bishop, Priest, and Deacon, to the High-Priest, Priest, and Levite — 
was propagated some time after the reign of Adrian. Can you shew 
that the notion was probably of an earlier date, and produce the sub- 
stance of any passage which leads you to think so ? 

3. Translate back into the Greek the following passage : — " For 
Christ is theirs who are humble, and not who exalt themselves over 
his flock. The sceptre of the majesty of God, our Lord Jesus Christ, 
came not in the show of pride and arrogance, though he could have 
done so, but with humility, as the Holy Ghost had before spoken con- 
cerning him." 

4. By whom were the principal apologies of the Primitive Church 
written ; and under what emperors respectively ? Can you name 
any other compositions of the same character and date, but which do 
not go by the title of apologies ? 

5. Translate the following passage from Irenaeus : 

Manifeste itaque in sua propria venientem Dominum, et sua pro- 
pria eum bajulante conditione, quae bajulatur ab ipso, et recapitula- 
tionem ejus, quae in ligno fuit inobedientiae, per earn quae in ligno est 
obedientiam, facientem, et seductionem illam solutam, qua seducta 
est male ilia, quae jam viro destinata erat virgo Eva, per veritatem 
evangelizata est bene ab Angelo jam sub viro Virgo Maria. Quemad- 
modum enim ilia per Angeli sermonem seducta est, ut effugeret Deum, 
praevaricata verbum ejus, ita et haec per Angelicum sermonem evan- 
gelizata est, ut portaret Deum, obediens ejus verbo. Et si ea inobe- 
dierat Deo, sed haec suasa est obedire Deo ; uti virginis Evae Virgo 
Maria fieret advocata. Et quemadmodum adstrictum est morti genus 
humanum per virginem, salvatur per virginem : aequa lance disposita, 
virginalis inobedientia, per virginalem obedientiam. 

What is the force of the expression 'in sua propria'? What was 
probably the Greek word which answered to ' conditione' ? What, to 
' recapitulationem' ? What might have been the Greek of i ut portaret 
Deum' % Do you remember any phrase similar to this in Ignatius or 
Tertullian 1 What do you understand by the sentence, e uti virginis 
Evae Virgo Maria fieret advocata \ How has the meaning of the 
passage been perverted by Roman Catholics ? 

6. Translate the following passages : 

XpicrTiavwu yap KaTVj^ovfxevayv doi/Aou<? airoXavovres ; 

1REN2EUS. 

Qdyeade fxov, <pt]<ri, rrjv <rdpK<z, kgu Trieade to. irddrj. 

Clemens Alexandr. 
15— 2 



340 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 

HjTi tie Kai apTOv civtov ovpaveov ireiriorTevKOTOdv. 

Clemens Alexandr. 
What doctrine, as to the Holy Communion, do you collect from 
these passages taken together ? 

7. Translate the following passage from Tertullian : 

Non omittam ipsius etiam conversations suo fidem innovare. 

De Press. Hcereticorum, § 41, 42. 



Woltmtarp CfKoIogtral ©jrammatfoin 

1843. 

[Professor Blunt.] 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. What is the import of the English word Church f What, of 
the word Ecclesia ? In what several senses is this latter word used 
in the New Testament ? At what time did the Church of Christ, pro- 
perly so called, begin? Support your view by texts. How is the 
original Church, (since gradually expanded,) described in a few words 
in the Acts ? Distinguish the several features of the Church accord- 
ing to this description of it. 

2. Why did our Lord (according to the Fathers,) when he gave 
the same power of originating the Church to all the Apostles, still 
give that power to Peter ? How may the Church, in fact, be said to 
have been built upon Peter ? On what occasion was the first attempt 
made by a Bishop of Rome to usurp authority over other Churches ? 
By whom was he resisted, and on what grounds? In what other 
early controversy was the judgment of the Bishop of Rome disputed ; 
and by what distinguished Bishop ? 

3. Over what parts of the world did the preaching of St Thomas, 
St Andrew, St John, St Peter, St Paul, respectively extend ? 

4. In what character is Simon Magus represented by the Early 
Fathers ? What do they say of a statue erected to him at Rome ; and 
what is probably their mistake? Who were the chief leaders of 
heresy who immediately succeeded him ? What was the great diffi- 
culty which it was the common object of the various Gnostic heretics 
to explain ? How in general did they attempt it ? What is the line 
of argument which the Fathers pursue with them ? 

5. To what town did the Christians of Jerusalem retire when the 
city was besieged by Titus ? Who was the' first Bishop of Jerusalem 



VOLUNTARY THEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION. 341 

after the capture of it? How long did the Bishops of Jerusalem 
continue to be Jews by birth ? Who was the hrst Gentile Bishop ? 
What new name was eventually given to the city ; and under what 
Emperor? What questions which agitated the early Church were 
set at rest by the church becoming Gentile ? 

6. What are said to have been the sentiments of the Emperor 
Tiberius with respect to Christ ? Which was the first Emperor who 
persecuted the Christians ? What conspicuous persons did he put to 
death? Which was the next; and how did he treat one of the 
Apostles? What were Trajan's directions with respect to the treat- 
ment of the Christians? What were Adrian's? What Christian 
documents inform us of the condition of the Christians under Anto- 
ninus? What, under Aurelius? and what, under Severus? Name 
the several authors of these documents ; the titles of the writings ; 
and the plan on which they are composed ? 

7. What were the first Four General Councils; where, when, 
and for what objects, were they held ? 

8. What were the chief works relating to the Reformation pub- 
lished by authority under King Henry ? what under King Edward ? 
and what under Queen Elizabeth ? Trace briefly the course of the 
Reformation, as reflected in that series of publications. 



CLEMENS ROMANUS. 

1. What internal evidence is there for the date of the First 
Epistle of Clemens ? What evidence of the genuineness of our copies 
is it ? How do you account for one or two quotations made from it 
by ancient writers, not being now found in it ? 

2. Under what circumstances was it written ? In what two par- 
ticulars especially does the argument correspond to that of St Paul's 
First Epistle to the same Church? Which of the Epistles of the New 
Testament does it often strongly resemble ; and to what theory with 
respect to that Epistle has this resemblance given rise ? Which of 
them does it expressly name; and to what passage in it does it refer ? 

3. Is there anything in the manner in which Clemens addresses 
the Church of Corinth, to lead us to suppose that he did not claim 
authority, as Bishop of Rome, over that Church ? How in fact came 
Clemens to be the person to write to it ? 

4. Translate the following passage : 

Ila.vT€s T€ eTaireivocppovei-re, fxr]^ev v/jlwu. §2. 

To whom does the construction of the passage require you to 
apply the term iradtyxara civtovI Do you remember any similar 
expression in the Acts of the Apostles ? How does Bishop Pearson 



342 



VOLUNTARY THEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION. 



teach us to understand these, and the like expressions, when expound- 
ing the word ' suffered ' in the Fourth Article of the Creed ? 

5. Translate the following passage : 

A*a (jjXov kci\ 6 YlavXos VTTOfXovrfi; viroypafxfxo^' § 5. 

What were St Paul's several journeys as recorded in the Acts? 
Who were his companions in each ? In what towns did he make his 
longest stay ; and what Epistles is he supposed to have written from 
those towns ? What do you understand hy the words to rep^xa t^<? 
duo-coos ? How many years of St Paul's life, in which he might have 
visited distant countries are to he accounted for, after his liberation 
from his first imprisonment at Rome ? 

6. What doctrine does Clemens find in the scarlet line which 
Rahab hung out of her window ? What in Psalm iii. 5 : "I laid me 
down and slept, and rose up again ; for the Lord sustained me " ? How 
does he express himself in two different places on the subject of Jus- 
tification? To whom does he represent Repentance as open, and 
what are his words ? Why may he be supposed to dwell so much as 
he does on the virtue of (ptXogevia ? What passage in one of St Paul's 
Epistles is parallel to the following ; and can you compare the two, 
clause by clause ? 

To <TKr}TTTpov Trjs !JLeya\w<rvvri$ tod Qeou, o Ku^to? tj/nouv 
XjOio-To? Tf7<rou5, ovk fixdev iv KOjjLirw aXa^oveias, ouoe vTreprjcpavia?, 
Ka'nrcp ouva/uLevos' ctXXa Ta7reivo(ppovwv. 

7. Translate the following passage : 

YlpoCrjXoov ovv t]/juv ovtwv tovtusv xwdwoo. § 40, 41. 

Briefly apply the argument. Can you give any instances in the 
language of the New Testament, where the distinction here made 
between the clergy and laity seems implied ? 

8. Translate the following passage : 

Koi ol a7r6(TToXoi ijfAiov eyvwaav Xeirovpyias. § 44. 

In illustration of the principle of succession here asserted, can you 
give the catalogue of the first twelve Bishops of Rome, as Irenaeus 
reports them down to his own time ? Could Irenaeus have produced 
similar catalogues of all other Churches ? What leads him to produce 
one at all ? and what guides him in his selection of that of Rome ? 

9. What are the circumstances which render the authenticity of 
the Second Epistle of Clemens (so called) suspected ? 

10. Translate the following passage into English or Latin ; and 
point out how it bears upon a doctrine of the Church of Rome : 

'£2? ovv eV/jieV 67rt y>7?, pieTavoyiawfxev aaaviov. II. Ep. §8. 



MxMiix KttfbttsBftp ®jrammatiott f apers 

IN 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY. 



1830. 

1. The want of any trace of precedency in the Bishop of Rome 
during the apostolic ages, cannot be attributed to defect of evidence 
through the injury of time ? 

2. The example of Polycarp is equally decisive in overturning 
their assumed supremacy ? 

3. Who was the first Bishop of Rome that usurped authority 
beyond the limits of his province ? 

4. Even this act is a proof that Victor did not feel that any 
extraordinary power was lodged in the see of Rome ? 

5. The first assumptions of power were not in right of their 
succession from St Peter? 

6. Who first claimed power as successor of St Peter ? 

7. What were the four memorable periods at which concessions 
of power were made to the see of Rome by the Emperors ? 

8. Valentinian's grant did not acknowledge the Bishop of Rome 
Universal Bishop ? 

9. On what grounds did Valentinian III. make his grant ? 

10. What do you mean by the authority of the sacred synod c 4 

11. How does it appear that a title giving supremacy to the see 
of Rome was not prefixed to the sixth canon of Nice ? 

12. When did the Pope first declare his superiority over all 
councils ? 

1 3. How did the council determine this question ? 

14. Many circumstances at this period tended to strengthen the 
power of the Pope ? 

15. What are the periods from which the establishment of the 
papal power is generally reckoned? 

16. What are those periods memorable for ? 

17. Mosheim is mistaken in the account he gives of the rise of 
the disputes about the title of Universal Bishop ; how ? 

18. Extended power was exercised by Charlemagne over the 
Popes ? 



344 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

19. The conduct of Charlemagne respecting the second council 
of Nice shows how little power the Popes then possessed ? 

20. What decisive step did Charlemagne take on this subject? 

21. He was not left alone in his opposition ? 

22. Charlemagne's veneration for the Scriptures was carried too 
far? 

23. It was however productive of valuable consequences ? 

24. How did Charlemagne show his conviction of the ignorance 
of his clergy ? 

25. Mosheim makes one exception to the general ignorance and 
submission of the European clergy at this period ? 

26. What is the remarkable description of the tenth century given 
by Baronius, and borrowed from a well-known Scripture narrative ? 

27. The comparison was not correct ? 

28. On the decline of Charlemagne's family, how did the Popes 
support their tottering power? 

29. Who was the first Pope that claimed the deposing power ? 

30. On what did he ground this assumption of power ? 

31. What Scripture authority did he produce ? 

32. The Roman Catholics now say they do not rest it on divine 
authority ; how is this refuted by a remarkable transaction connected 
with these countries ? 

33. What great power did Hildebrand wrest from the Emperors ? 

34. He showed his utter ignorance of the method of God's pro- 
vidence ? 

35. How did he overcome the opposition made to the celibacy of 
the clergy ? 

36. The English Church showed its independence ? 

37. What was the grand object of Gregory's ambition ? 

38. To one European monarch Gregory yielded ? 

39. What were his demands upon William ? 

40. William's answer? 

41. What was the origin of Peter-pence ? 

42. Yet William gave a striking proof of devotedness to the 
Roman see? 

43. Bishop Newton considers this as the fulfilment of a prophecy? 

44. The act was adopted by the Roman Catholic church ? 

45. What was the remarkable inscription on the crown given 
by Gregory to Rodolph? 

46. Rodolph imagined that the mode of his death was a special 
punishment for his conduct to Henry ? 

47. Hildebrand was canonized ; when ? 

48. The act was rejected by all the European nations, except two? 



IX ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 315 

49. In raising the spiritual above the temporal power, Gregory 
was far exceeded by Urban II. ? 

50. Who was the first Pontiff that exercised the power claimed 
by Gregory of erecting new kingdoms ? 

51. The Pontificate of Alexander III. was distinguished by 
several most important events in papal history? 

52. Even before the time of Gregory VII. a Pope had exercised 
an extraordinary power over kingdoms ? 

53. Till the time of Nicholas II. how had the Popes been elected ? 

54. What change did he make ? 

55 Whom did he understand by Cardinals ? 

56. When were Cardinal Deacons added, and for what purpose ? 

57- When was the election arranged in its present form ? 

58. The ambition of a Pope violated all the principles of filial duty? 

59. Cause of quarrel with Henry ? 

60. Pascal was justly rewarded for his conduct ? 

61. The last act of his life was worthy of his former perfidy ? 

62. With all its enormities, the papal power was of use to Christ- 
ianity ? 

63. This may be proved by comparison ? 

64. Politically it was the preserver of Europe ? 

65. The sanctuaries afforded by the church, though often abused, 
were nevertheless not less useful than the somewhat similar institu- 
tions of Moses ? 

66. Spiritual object of Christian Rome was similar to the tem- 
poral of Pagan Rome ? 

67. Gibbon remarks that Innocent III. has to boast the two most 
signal triumphs over sense and humanity ; what were they ? 

68. He also had to boast of having conferred the greatest power 
upon the clergy ? 

69. He might have learned the extent of it from the Roman 
Satyrist ? 

70. By increasing the temporal power of the papacy, Innocent 
prepared the way for its rapid downfall? 

71. What was the first blow given to its power ? 

72. What was the name commonly given by Roman Catholics to 
the residence at Avignon ? 

73. Popes had just reason to be afraid of calling a general council? 

74. The decrees of the councils of Constance and Basil were 
peculiarly offensive to them? 

75. How did they endeavour to remove their effect ? 

76. The Emperor Charles V. was particularly anxious to call a 
general council, and yet was baffled by Clement ; how ? 

15—5 



346 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

77. Clement had personal reasons for dreading a general council ? 

78. The Emperor, tired by the delays of the Bishop of Rome, 
acts from his own authority ; how ? 

79. How was Charles drawn over to the party of the Pope ? 

80. In what year did the council of Trent meet ? 

81 . Their meeting was preceded by a memorable event ? 

82. By what nations were the decrees of the council of Trent 
implicitly received ? 

83. Does the Church of England acknowledge the authority of 
any general councils ? 

84. Where is this acknowledgment made ? 

85. May it not be said that this act has become obsolete by the 
suppression of the High Commission Court ? 

86. The Council of Nice was held by whom and in what year ? 

87. What was the cause of summoning it ? 

88. Had any steps been previously taken to quell the dispute ? 

89. In the latter end of the preceding century a formal con- 
demnation had been passed upon those who denied the divinity of our 
Saviour ; on what occasion ? 

90. Was the Council of Nice unanimous ? 

91. Instance of duplicity in some of the Arian bishops? 

92. The Nicene fathers were justified in their introduction of a 
new word ; why ? 

93. Besides the Arian controversy, what other matters were 
arranged at the Nicene council ? 

94. Some western nations continued Quartodecumans ; what 
nation continued longest ? 

95. Who presided at the Council of Nice ? 

96. How does this appear ? 

97. How do the Roman Catholics attempt to get rid of this 
difficulty ? 

98. Whom do they assert to have been the president ? 

99. In their argument there appears a remarkable petitio prin- 
cipii; what is it? 

100. Do not the signatures place the presbyter legates first ? 

101. What was there remarkable in the close of Osius's life ? 

102. Nicene creed is not properly so called ; why ? 

103. Were there any changes made after the Council of Constan- 
tinople ? 

104. This was contrary to the decrees of the Council of Ephesus ? 

105. When was the Council of Ephesus held ? 

106. Who presided at the council, and in what right ? 

107. Yet upon this the Pope endeavours to found a claim, and how ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 34? 

108. This council only increased the divisions in the church ; 
why? 

109. What name was given to the second Council of Ephesus ? 

110. What is the Eutychian heresy ? 

111. Nestorius and Eutyches, arguing from right principles, ar- 
rived at false and opposite conclusions ; how ? 

112. Heresy triumphed in this council ; by what means ? 

113. The difficulty of calling a council to reverse these proceed- 
ings affords proof how little power the Pope then possessed ? 

114. How were the difficulties finally overcome % 

llo. Yet in this Council of Chalcedon a great stride to power 
was made by the Pope ; what was it ? 

116. A canon passed at this council peculiarly offensive to the 
Pope? 

117. How does Bishop Jewell defend the Church of England 
from the accusation that a secession should not have been made from 
the Church of Rome without a general council ? 

118. He shows the absurdity of this objection by a parallel from 
profane history ? 

119. On what grounds did he defend the English Reformers for 
not appearing at the Council of Trent ? 

120. The Pope sent an embassy to Elizabeth ; what were the 
conditions he offered ? 

121. The title of supreme head of the Church was resigned by 
Elizabeth ; and why ? 

122. The title of Puritans, how first given ? 

123. Who had been the first dissenters from the Christian Church ? 
Dissenters in discipline, not in doctrine ? 

124. The Puritans applied for advice to Bullinger and other 
German divines ; what answer did they receive ? 

125. A privilege granted by a papal bull to the University of 
Cambridge tended to promote Puritanism ? 

126. Puritans openly separate ; on what occasion ? 

127. It is not well founded to say that they were driven into 
separation in consequence of a mere scruple about habits? 

128. When and where was the first presbyterian congregation 
established in England ? 

129. Presbyterians, notwithstanding their horror of popery, 
agreed in one of its most dangerous principles? 

130. Archbishop Parker appears to have foreseen the conse- 
quences of Puritanism ? 

131. What were the two demands of the Puritans at the Hamp- 
ton Court conference which were complied with ? 



•348 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

132. What was the political reason for endeavouring to suppress 
Arminianism in Holland ? 

133. In what character did the English commissioners appear at 
the Synod of Dort ? 

134. How then did they gain admission into the synod? 

135. Why did the Arminian deputies retire ? 

136. What was the real cause for rejecting their request? 

137. Remarkable effect produced by Episcopius's eloquence ? 

138. An article of the Synod of Dort is in direct opposition to the 
articles of the English Church ? 

139. What was the strange conduct of two of the English com- 
missioners ? 

140. How has it been accounted for ? <, 

141. What was the effect of the Synod of Dort upon James ? 

142. What is Mosheim's striking summary of James's incon- 
sistent character ? 

143. How did Archbishop Laud attempt to put an end to the 
quinquarticular controversy ? 

144. What was the strange vote of the House of Commons upon 
the subject? 

145. Two principles, undoubtedly true, were maintained by Arch- 
bishop Laud, which yet gave great offence ; what were they ? 

146. How was the application to have a Roman Catholic Bishop 
in England received ? 

147. What were the conditions proposed ? 

148. ^ vlien was the oath of allegiance established ? 

149. How does it differ from the oath of supremacy ? 



1831. 

1. Gibbon divides into three classes the opinions of the heathen 
with respect to religion at the promulgation of Christianity % 

2. This enumeration is far from accounting for the spreading of 
Christianity ? 

3. What are the secondary causes that have been brought for- 
ward to account for the rapid progress of Christianity ? 

4. It is absurd to bring forward the virtues of Christians as one 
of these causes ? 

5. How does Mosheim explain the early Christians having all 
things in common ? 

6. This community was certainly voluntary ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 349 

7. If it were a real community of goods, it certainly did not 
extend beyond Judea ? 

8. What is the first unquestionable testimony as to the progress 
of Christianity ? 

9. What was the triumphant statement of an early apologist as 
to its progress ? 

10. AvTiat did Tacitus mean by saying Christians were odio 
humani generis convicti ? 

11. How does Suetonius express a similar sentiment? 

12. What were the causes assigned by Nero for the first per- 
secution ? 

13. How far did this persecution extend ? 

14. What are the reasons for supposing it was confined to the 
city? 

15. Yet it most probably extended over the empire ? 

16. No cause is assigned for the persecution of Domitian ; yet, 
from his conduct, we can ascertain the motive ? 

17. How does it appear that at the accession of Trajan there was 
not any law against Christians ? 

18. AWiat was the law enacted by Trajan ? 

19. This was artfully evaded under Adrian ? 

20. At that time a pretext was afforded to justify the increased 
cruelty against the Christians ? 

21. Whence did the Gnostics arise? 

22. Part of their system was in direct opposition to the Platonists? 

23. How did they differ as to the creation of the world ? 

24. They contradicted many doctrines of Christianity ? 

25. How did they defend their opposition to the written word ? 

26. The relief afforded by Adrian to the Christians has been 
supposed to have arisen from attachment to their opinions; whence 
this idea? 

27. The enumeration of ten persecutions by the Roman Em- 
perors is false ? 

28. Whence were Christian writers led to make out this number ? 

29. The analogy is false ? 

30. A passage in the Apocalypse also gave strength to the idea ? 

31. That all the Apostles, except St John, suffered martyrdom, 
is not certain ? 

32. The contrary can nearly be demonstrated ? 

33. How many certainly did ? and who were they ? 

34. What was Josephus's testimony to the character of James ? 

35. Who was the first Roman Emperor generally supposed to 
have been a Christian ? 



350 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

36. Mosheim's opinion of the contradictory evidence on this sub- 
ject? 

37. How does it appear that the conversion of Constantine was 
gradual ? 

38. What was the nature of the successive decrees published by 
him on the subject of religion? 

39. The common story of his conversion is not probable ? 

40. The spirit of Christianity suffered most materially at its very 
establishment, from the adoption of two erroneous maxims ? 

41. What was the first exertion of power made by the Bishop of 
Rome, beyond the limits of his diocese? 

42. This conduct was censured by high authority ? 

43. What authority did Cyprian concede to the Pope ? 

44. On what occasion was this opinion called forth ? 

45. This authority was settled by the Council of Constantinople ? 

46. After the first concession of power to the Bishop of Rome, 
what circumstances contributed to increase its extent ? 

47. To whom was the title of Universal Bishop first given ? 

48. Mosheim is mistaken in the account he gives of the origin of 
this dispute ? 

49. Who was the Bishop of Rome at this period ? and how did 
he oppose the title ? 

50. When was it conferred upon the Bishop of Rome ? 

51. Gibbon accuses Gregory of the greatest baseness in flattering 
the tyrant Phocas, yet his conduct is not without excuse ? 

52. When did the Bishop of Rome become a temporal prince ? 

53. What was the nature of his j urisdiction under Charlemagne '( 

54. How did Adrian persuade Charlemagne to make such con- 
cessions of dominion ? 

55. What circumstances had previously occurred, which enlisted 
the Popes in the cause of Charlemagne ? 

56. What was the first attempt to check the worship of images ? 

57. Philippicus Bardanes was not influenced by pure motives ? 

58. How were his orders received at Rome ? 

59. What was the first real check to the worship of images ? 

60. Leo, terrified by the resistance of the people, is nevertheless 
roused to persevere, and how ? 

61. Why did not Leo call a general council ? 

62. Two instances of gross ignorance of Scripture appear in 
Gregory's correspondence with Leo ? 

63. An instance also of his contempt of Scripture ? 

64. Did Leo really order all images to be removed from the 
churches ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, 351 

65. His son, Constantine, proceeded more cautiously ? 

66. The second Council of Constantinople determined that but 
one image could be tolerated ? 

67. As the Latins do not acknowledge this council, what do they 
call the seventh general council ? 

68. An abominable crime gave a triumph to image worship ? 

69. What gross deceit was practised in the second Nicene Council ? 

70. In what parts of Europe were the decrees of this council 
received ? 

71. What Englishman distinguished himself in this controversy ? 

72. The doctrine of transubstantiation was introduced at a much 
later period ; by whom ? 

73. What were the queries proposed to Bertram or Ratramnus, 
by the Emperor Charles the Bald ? 

74. What was Bertram's answer ? 

75. How did the Council of Trent evade this answer ? 

76. The University of Douay took a different course ? 

77. A distinguished Irishman took the same part with Bertram ; 
what did he assert the sacrament of the altar to be ? 

78. How does it appear that at this period the Church of Eng- 
land did not hold the doctrine of transubstantiation ? 

79. What public document proves that the Church of England 
rejected the doctrine at this period? 

80. An illustration of the doctrine then held by the Saxon Church 
was borrowed from St Paul ? 

81. When first was an attempt made to establish transubstan- 
tiation as the doctrine of the Romish Church ? 

82. Why did Gregory VII. refuse compliance? 

83. Innocent III. established the doctrine without any regard to 
the usual forms of Church government ? 

84. For what purpose did Innocent establish the Inquisition ? 

85. Of the commissioners sent by Innocent, who was the most 
remarkable ? 

86. Who w T ere the Waldenses ? 

87. Mosheim says they were so called from Peter Waldus, yet 
this opinion is embarrassed with many difficulties ? 

88. Disputes about the age of Waldus ? 

89. That Waldus was not unlearned appears from one of the 
subjects of complaint against him ? 

90. Waldenses were called Leonistae, and why ? 

91. Also Insabbatati? 

92. The crimes of the Manichees were imputed to them ; whence 
the confusion? 



352 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

93. Analogy between the effects of the persecution after the death 
of St Stephen, and of the persecution of the Albigenses ? 

94. In what council were excommunications pronounced against 
the Albigenses ? 

95. What European Monarch opposed this persecution, and pre- 
vented the followers of the Albigenses from being burned ? 

96. Who was the first person burned in England for heresy ? 

97. What was the single question pressed upon him ? 

98. When was the first act passed against heresy in England ? 

99. How do the Roman Catholic historians attempt to justify the 
execution of Lord Cobham ? 

100. False, why 1 

101. In England, France, Germany, and Italy, events occurred 
which prepared the way for the reformation of Luther ? 

102. Where was WicklifFe first known ? 

103. What decided his opposition to Rome ? 

104. For what purpose had he gone to Bruges? 

105. What were the tenets he defended ? 

106. WicklifFe was summoned to the Council of London ; what 
was the event % 

107. What doctrine of WicklifFe was most offensive to the people ? 

108. How did he escape conviction for heresy ? 

109. How were his opinions propagated after his death ? 

110. Archbishop Arundell chose an odd subject for his panegyric 
at the funeral of Queen Anne 1 

111. How did WicklifFe prepare the way for the German Refor- 
mation ? 

112. What severe blow did the papal power receive at the 
Council of Constance ? 

113. This was not a novel doctrine % 

114. What distinguished Pope had before submitted to the doc- 
trine \ 

115. In what year did the Council of Constance sit, and for what 
purpose ? 

116. What had been the effect of the Council of Pisa ? 

117. What was the cause of the condemnation of Huss at the 
Council of Constance ? 

118. How do modern Roman Catholics attempt to justify the 
violation of the safe-conduct given to him ? 

119. Sigismund's letter was more than a mere travelling passport ? 

120. How did the council justify its own proceedings 1 

121. A Roman Catholic Professor of the present day says, Huss 
was executed for treason ; how is this statement refuted ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 353 

122. What blow had the papal power received in France ? 

123. What was the Pragmatic Sanction? 

124. How long did it continue ? 

125. What did Louis XI. gain for attempting to abrogate it ? 

126. How was he prevented from succeeding in his attempt? 

127. A concordat was subsequently made ; by whom ? 

128. What did the king gain ? 

129. What is the motive assigned by Hume for Luther's op- 
position to the Pope ? 

130. This charge is unfounded ? 

13L Luther, well inclined to respect the Pope, is driven into open 
rebellion; how? 

132. What were the proceedings at the Diet of Worms ? 

133. Frederick's friendship saved Luther ? 

134. Luther's confinement was of advantage to the Reformation ? 

135. What was the name given in England to the proselytes of 
Luther ? 

136. What was the first open avowal of Cranmer's change of 
opinion ? 

137- What cause prevented Melancthon from visiting England 
when no longer detained by business, and when he had obtained the 
Elector's consent ? 

138. A general congress of Protestant divines was planned, and 
by whom ? 

139. Cranmer was urged to form a code of articles for England 
by two Protestant leaders of very different principles ? 

140. Who had drawn up the confession of faith for Augsburgh, 
and in what year 1 

141. Cranmer deviated from the principle adopted in all the con- 
tinental confessions of faith ? 

142. At what time did he make this change ? 

143. How can this be ascertained ? 

144. What induced him to make the change ? 

145. Remarkable contradiction between the articles of Cranmer 
and the Catechism ? 

146. When the articles were proposed in 1562, Queen Elizabeth 
seems to have had extraordinary notions of her power as head of the 
Church? 

147. Did she allow the articles to pass quietly through both 
houses of Parliament in 1571 ? 



354 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 



1832. 

1. What circumstances in the history of the Jews rendered it 
safe for the parents of our Lord to return into Galilee, when afraid to 
venture into Judea ? 

2. In the Acts of the Apostles it is said, Herod the king stretched 
forth his hand to vex certain of the Church ; who was he % 

3. How called by Josephus ? 

4. What right had he to be called king % 

5. By whom was. Herod made king, and in what year 1 

6. This might fix the date of St Matthew's Gospel ? 

7. Death of Herod, as recorded by St Luke, is confirmed ; how ? 

8. Who was king Agrippa, before whbm Paul pleaded ? 

9. Had he succeeded his father % 

10. St Luke accurately agrees with history, in speaking of him 
and his father ? 

11. To what period were the Jews free from any religious sects ? 

12. From the silence of the writers of the New Testament about 
theEssenes, an argument has been deduced injurious to Christianity'? 

13. What was the probable cause of this omission ? 

14. How did the three Jewish sects differ as to the rule of their 
religion ? 

15. How did they differ about the sense of the divine law ? 

16. In one of his parables, our Lord appears to have intended the 
delineation of a Sadducee ? 

17. What particulars in the narrative prove the resemblance ? 

18. It was consonant to the views of the Sadducees to leave Laza- 
rus at the gate unnoticed. 

19. The Sadducees and Pharisees, however disagreeing on other 
points, united in persecuting the Christians % 

20. What induced the Roman magistrates, who were tolerant of 
other religions, to persecute Christianity ? 

21. What was Cicero's principle of legislation as to the rights of 
individuals in choosing their religion % 

22. What were the causes which influenced the people to per- 
secute the Christians ? 

23. What was the first Pagan persecution in which it is probable 
Christians suffered ? 

24. Suetonius' account of this persecution renders it probable that 
he confounded Jewish and Christian sufferers ? 

25. What was the first Roman persecution which undoubtedly 
reached the provinces ? 

26. First persecution which reached the shores of Britain ? 



[N ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 



355 



27. First British martyr ? 

28. What is the most ancient authority for St Paul visiting 
Britain ? 

29. At what period of his ministry must this visit have taken 
place, if it ever occurred ? 

30. The number of years between his two imprisonments renders 
it possible ? 

31. If Britain was converted in the time of the Apostles, Christ- 
ianity did not make much progress ? 

32. What is the monkish story of its revival in the second cen- 
tury ? 

33. It is not probable that Lucius was a British king 1 

34. It is not probable that an application would have been made 
to Pope Eleutherus ? 

35. Remarkable proof unwillingly given by Bede, that the Britons 
did not derive their religion from Rome ? 

36. The religion which survived among the Britons to the sixth 
century gave them most imperfect notions of their duty ? 

37. The circumstance which first drew the attention of Gregory 
the Great to England has provoked the sneers of Hume ? 

38. How was Gregory prevented from going to England ? 

39. What circumstance afforded Gregory strong hopes of suc- 
ceeding in the conversion of the king of Kent ? 

40. What prevailing notion among the nations of Germany ren- 
dered this event of peculiar consequence ? 

41. Testimony of Tacitus on this subject % 

42. How did the king receive the missionaries? Why in the 
open air ? 

43. Strange but honourable title given by the Pope to the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury ? 

44. What were the peculiar honours attached to the see of Canter- 
bury ? 

45. First archbishop who appears to have gained any metropo- 
litical power beyond Kent ? 

46. What is generally stated as the first English appeal to the 
Roman See ? 

47. The event of this proves that the Bishop of Rome did not 
enjoy any supremacy over the Anglo-Saxon Church ? 

48. This also proved by the part which they took with regard 
to the decrees of the second Nicene Council ? 

49. When first did the Pope s legate preside in England ? 

50. What was the most important step made by William the 
Conqueror in the Saxon j urisprudence ? 



356 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

51. What had been the judicature established by Alfred ? 

52. Why did the change ingratiate William with the popish 
clergy ? 

53. Where are we to date the commencement of the contests be- 
tween the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions ? 

54. The increase of papal power in England is attributable to the 
unfortunate circumstances in which the monarchs were placed ? 

55. What compromise with respect to investitures did Henry I. 
make? 

56. This was conceding great power to the Pope ? 

57. Its effects shewn with regard to the Constitutions of Clarendon? 

58. What were the enactments there made obnoxious to the Pope ? 

59. Duplicity of Becket at this time ? v 

60. What monstrous assumptions of power were made at this 
time by the Pope ? 

61. Who had been the first monarch ever crowned by a bishop ? 

62. To what does Mosheim attribute the encouragement given to 
the crusades ? 

63. What are the two motives of policy usually assigned ? 

64. The encouragement could not have arisen from the desire 
of the Popes to weaken the Emperors ? 

65. Nor from the hopes of princes to get rid of their turbulent 
vassals ? 

66. At the time of the crusades their justice was openly called in 
question ; by whom ? 

67. How did the Dominicans defend the right of Christians to 
invade the Holy Land ? 

68. Cause of the second crusade ? 

69. To what cause does Mosheim attribute its defeat ? 

70. Similar cause produced the downfall of the Christian power 
in Jerusalem ? 

71. The conduct of Christians in other parts of Europe proved 
them as ignorant of the true spirit of Christianity as the crusaders ? 

72. These excesses were not merely the crimes of individuals, 
but were sanctioned by the Church ? 

73. An individual in these strange contests displayed a combina- 
tion of very diversified talents, and very diversified employments ? 

74. Innocent III. impeded the success of the crusades which he 
excited against the Infidels ? 

75. The crusade against the Albigenses was preceded by another 
powerful engine of papal tyranny ? 

76. Mosheim states that the name Albigenses is used in two dif- 
ferent senses ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 857 

77. Mosheim's date of the probable introduction of the Paulicians 
is inconsistent with his attributing to them the origin of the Albigenses 
and Waldenses ? 

78. Remarkable contradiction in Mosheim about the time of the 
existence of the Waldenses 1 

79. By what allegory of the Old Testament did Innocent III. 
illustrate his authority over the Roman and foreign Churches % 

80. On his elevation to the Papacy he made an impious appli- 
cation of the words of the Baptist ? 

81. What was the decree de haereticis passed by this Pontiff in the 
Lateran Council '? 

82. On what did he rest his deposing power ? 

83. Bishop Doyle states that the Popes, with the single exception 
of Boniface VIII., always rested their claims, to interfere with the tem- 
poral rights of princes upon some temporal powers previously acquired; 
how is this assertion refuted by the history of the Eastern empire ? 

84. How by the Pope's conduct in France at an early period ? 

85. A more familiar instance overturns his position 1 

86. What is the extent of jurisdiction claimed by Adrian for St 
Peter and the Church ? 

87. What is the period from which Milner dates the papal power 
as Antichrist ? 

88. At what period are we to place the summit of papal power ? 

89. Where the first step of its downfall % 

90. What was the circumstance which first showed to Luther the 
mischief of indulgences ? 

91. Luther's proceedings were most orderly 1 

92. What was the advice given him by his bishop ? 

93. Luther's conduct showed how ignorant he was of the extent 
of the abominable traffic ? 

94. A singular coincidence between events in the life of WicklifTe 
and of Luther ? 

95. A remarkable literary event hi the year preceding Luther's 
disputation gave great strength to the Reformation ? 

96. A singular instance of the terror the papal see felt at the pro- 
gress of literature was shown in their conduct to Cardinal Ximenes ? 

97. The historian of Leo insinuates that Luther adroitly availed 
himself of this hostility, and turned it into a weapon of attack ; but 
unjustly ? 

98. Literature formed the distinction between the Romanists and 
Protestants beyond the limits of Germany ? 

99. Where did Charles I. place the commencement, and where 
the completion, of the English Reformation ? 



358 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

100. On what ground did the English bishops refuse to crown 
Elizabeth ? 

101. What induced them to resist % 

102. The failure of this scheme led them to try a different one 
with the inferior clergy, which was equally mischievous to their cause ? 

103. To what period did the Romanists conform to the new 
services ? 

104. At the Hampton Court conference, what objection did the 
Puritans make to the surplice % 

105. James's answer ? 

106. Sir H. Wootton's aphorism as to receding from the Church 
of Rome ? 

107. The English Puritans went far beyond Calvin ? 

108. An injudicious civil enactment of Archbishop Bancroft 
tended greatly to increase the Dissenters in England ? 

109. The Puritans fell into the error of the Lollards ? 

1 10. The Puritans profited by the advice and example of Eliza- 
beth? 

111. "What was the nature of the royal declaration, prefixed by 
Archbishop Laud to the book of Articles ? 

112. How did the House of Commons treat this order ? 

113. What subject of controversy, as to Churches, did Laud 
unfortunately revive ? 

114. A legal change, which he endeavoured to make, also sup- 
ported the charge of popish inclinations 1 

115. In their treaties with Charles, the Covenanters adopted a 
novel mode of interpreting laws ? 

116. What was the first step towards the subversion of episcopacy 
in England ? 

117. The absurd argument made use of to induce the bishops to 
submit to an exclusion from the House of Lords ? 

118. Archbishop Williams made a cowardly compromise, which 
hastened, instead of retarding, the catastrophe 1 

119. He then completed the ruin of the Church by an act of 
great imprudence ; what was it ? 

120. How was the king induced to give his consent to the bill of 
exclusion % 

121. What interval of time elapsed between this act and the 
abolition of episcopacy ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 359 



1833. 



1. Mosheim's opinion as to the origin of deacons ? 

2. Where does he think they are first mentioned ? 

3. For his use of the word j/ewVepo? he appeals to our Lord and 
to St Peter % 

4. What then does he conceive the appointment recorded in the 
Acts of the Apostles to have been ? 

5. This seems contrary to the narrative ? 

6. And also contrary to the interpretation of our Church ? 

7. What does Mosheim allow to be the origin of bishops ? 

8. Where does he place the origin of councils % 

9. Why does he deny the assembly recorded in the Acts of the 
Apostles to be a council ? 

10. Who, according to Mosheini, was the first emperor that 
enacted laws against the Christians ? 

11. Why then were there no laws in existence on the accession 
of Trajan? 

* 12. What was Pliny's reason for thinking the Christians deserved 
to be punished % 

13. What was the law of Severus ? 

14. What was the most severe persecution the Christians suf- 
fered ? 

15. There were three descriptions of persons who swerved from 
their profession % 

16. Libellati, who ? 

17. What was the cause of the persecution under Diocletian ? 

18. How was it terminated ? 

19. What were the earliest festivals of the Christian Church ? 

20. What was the dispute about Easter % 

21. What was the inconvenience of the Asiatic method? 

22. What was the first attempt to settle the controversy ? 

23. The British and Irish Churches were called Quartodecumans, 
and why ? 

24. But improperly % 

25. They differed in two respects from the Romish Church ? 

26. What was the remarkable conference on the subject ? 

27. When did the difference terminate ? 

28. By what general council had the question been decided ? 

29. Under what mistake did the Nicene Fathers act % 

30. The first four councils condemned each a remarkable heresy 1 

31. How does Hooker express them \ 

32. What was the Nestorian heresy ? 



360 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

S3. The Nestorian heresy arose in some measure from the Apol- 
linarian ? 

34. Why did not Nestorius attend the Council of Ephesus ? 

35. Who had summoned the council ? 

36. Nestorius seems to have been severely treated ? 

37. The business was conducted with indecent haste ? 

38. Nestorius, however, was certainly guilty of two great errors ? 

39. Origin of the Eutychian heresy ? 

40. Various circumstances conspired so as to enable the legates 
of the bishops of Rome to take the presidency at Chalcedon ? 

41. Besides this accession of power, what other did Leo obtain 
for the see of Rome ? 

42. What were the peculiar opinions of Montanus ? 

43. In what sense did he call himself the Paraclete ? 

44. What reason did he assign for adding to the precepts of 
Christ? 

45. Who was his most celebrated disciple ? 

46. At what period can we date the origin of Monks ? 

47- Who is said to have brought the monastic orders from Egypt 
into Italy? 

48. When were the Agapae or love-feasts suppressed ? 

49. What was the Novatian heresy ? 

50. Whence did it arise ? 

51 . What other name was assumed by the Novatians ? 

52. The prodigious increase of the power of the clergy, in the 
eighth century, Mosheim attributes to political causes ? 

53. That it was not from superstition, appears from the character 
of the prince who vastly augmented their power ? 

54. What was the most powerful engine of priestly authority ? 

55. Whence did this monstrous power of excommunication arise? 

56. Who was the first French prince anointed king ? 

57. What had been the previous custom ? 

58. Pepin was anointed twice ? 

59. The confirmation of Pepin by Pope Zachary has been re- 
presented in two different ways ? 

60. What induced Charlemagne to make his donations to the 
Bishop of Rome ? 

61. A fortunate combination of circumstances enabled Charle- 
magne to become Emperor of the West ? 

62. What extraordinary power did Adrian confer upon Charle- 
magne? 

63. To what does Mosheim attribute the unfortunate contests 
between the Greek and Latin Churches ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 361 

64. Charlemagne, in his endeavours to promote Christian know- 
ledge, imprudently established customs which had a different tendency? 

65. What were the political events which enabled the Roman 
Pontiffs to augment their power after the death of Charlemagne ? 

66. How did they endeavour to support their right to the power 
they had thus usurped ? 

67. The Christian religion was established in Poland and Russia 
by similar means ? 

68. In what years ? 

69. The Pope sent ambassadors to the Tartars; when, and on 
what occasion ? 

70. The conduct of these ambassadors in their endeavours to 
convert the Tartars, proves that the spirit of the Roman Catholic 
religion was very different from the present ? 

71. At the commencement of the thirteenth century the popes 
urged a renewal of the crusades; what is the cause assigned by Mosheim? 

72. How does it appear that the monarchs of that period appre- 
ciated rightly the character of the popes ? 

73. How did Gregory IX. treat the Emperor Frederick ? 

74. There were strong inducements to make Frederick under- 
take the crusade ? 

75. His mode of carrying it on, though more successful than that 
of his predecessors, was yet displeasing to the Pope ? 

76. Cause of Louis IX. undertaking a crusade ? 

77. In what year did the Latin empire in the East finally ter- 
minate ? 

78. Causes assigned by Mosheim for its failure ? 

79. At this period complaints were made of the growth, of in- 
fidelity ; whence did it arise ? 

80. By what distinction did these unbelievers protect themselves 
against public opinion ? 

81. In what year, and by whom, was the year of jubilee added 
to the rites of the Romish Church ? 

82. What was the object of Boniface's celebrated bull, Unam 
sanctam ? 

83. How did the King of France receive this bull ? 

84. What was the end of this contest ? 

85. The residence at Avignon weakened considerably the powe? 
of the popes ? J 

86. - What mischievous abuse did it increase ? 

87. What name did the Italians give to the residence at Avignon? 

88. Did the Council of Constance heal the divisions in the papacy ? 

89. What were the causes which led to the condemnation of Huss ? 
16 



362 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

90. Whence had Huss principally borrowed his doctrines \ 

91. What were the two questions brought before the Council of 
Basil ? 

92. In what year did it assemble 1 

93. The events consequent upon this council were even more 
injurious to the papacy than the western schism ? 

94. Who was the principal opponent of the papal power at Basil? 

95. How did he conduct himself when elected pope ? 

96. Two events in the fifteenth century of signal use to the 
progress of learning in Europe ? 

97. The close connexion between the progress of learning and of 
the Reformation can be easily shown ? 

98. What was Luther's first public^ mode of shewing his op- 
position to indulgences ? 

99. What is the date of that event ? 

100. An opposition to the papal power seems to have arisen 
before this period ? 

101. In what year didZuinglius commence his opposition, and how ? 

102. How far did Luther acknowledge the power of indulgences ? 

103. How did Cajetan explain the power of indulgences ? 

104. How did Luther escape the first summons to Rome ? 

105. The Pope guilty of great imprudence ? 

106. What caused Luther to separate entirely from the Pope 1 

107. In what year did this event take place % 

108. How did he declare his separation from the Church of Rome ? 

109. What were the consequences of Luther's appearing at the 
Diet of Worms ? 

110. How did Luther employ himself in his confinement % 

111. What induced him to leave his confinement ? 

112. Mosheim and his translator differ as to the motives of 
Luther in his opposition to Carlostadt? 

113. Two unhappy circumstances of different kinds retarded the 
Reformation ? 

114. What was the foreign ? 

115. What was the domestic ? 

116. What was the result of the first Diet of Spires ? 

117. What was the result of the second ? 

118. What is the origin of the name Protestants ? 

119. In what year were they so called first ? 

120. What were the principal acts passed in the first year of 
Elizabeth ? 

121. In the oath of supremacy the title of supreme head of the 
church was omitted, and why ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 363 

122. What extraordinary power did this act of supremacy give 
the queen ? 

123. What was to be deemed heresy 1 

124. How was the oath of supremacy explained % 

125. Were all persons obliged to take it 1 

126. A striking instance of the desire to pursue lenient measures 
is to be found in the directions of the Archbishop of Canterbury to the 
bishops about this oath ? 

127. How did the Queen prevent the popish convocation from 
passing canons contrary to those acts of parliament ? 

128. What was the difficulty in the way of the consecration of 
Parker ? 

129. How could the Queen have easily obviated these difficulties ? 

130. The objections of the Romanists to the consecration of 
Parker are of different kinds ? 

131. The bishops of a province can, according to primitive cus- 
tom^ consecrate their superior ? 

lo2. What is the remarkable coincidence between the two pub- 
lications of the English Articles, and the proceedings of the council of 
Trent ? 

133. What was the real cause of the objections of the Puritans % 

134. Their objections to habits, &c, were not countenanced by 
the continental reformers ? 

135. Bishop Jewell was particularly hostile to them ? 

136. What were the prophesyings in the time of Elizabeth ? 

137. What was the opinion of Elizabeth as to the power of the 
House of Commons in the reformation of ecclesiastical causes % 

138. The conduct of the Calvinistic and Arminian divines in the 
reign of James has been brought forward to establish a connexion 
between them and the form of government, but without cause ? 

139. How did they change into political parties 1 



1834. 

1. What is the date of Saint Peter's arrival at Rome, according 
to the church of Rome ? 

2. This is impossible ? 

8. Why could he not have been at Rome when the epistle to 
the Romans was written ? 

4. Could he have visited Rome between that period and Saint 
Paul's arrival? 

16—2 



364 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

5. There were strong reasons why he should have gone there 
at that time? 

6. The earliest authorities do not refer the origin of the Roman 
church to Saint Peter ? 

7. Irenseus triumphantly quoted by the Roman Catholics, really 
overturns their system ? 

8. The order of succession is disputed ? 

9. Clement did not assume any of the authority claimed by his 
successors ? 

10. How does he address the church of Corinth ? 

11. How did Constantine divide the administration of the Church ? 

12. Was this division accurately adhered to ? 

13. The conversion of Constantine^ appears not to have been 
miraculous, but gradual ? 

14. His edicts in favour of Christianity were gradual also ? 

15. The character of Julian has been unjustly extolled? 

16. What had been the causes of his apostacy to Heathenism ? 

17. What was his great attempt to destroy the credit of the 
Christian prophecies ? 

18. What was his attempt to destroy the respectability of the 
Christians themselves ? 

19. He appears to have meditated still more severe measures 
against the Christians ? 

20. When was the first schism in the papacy ? 

21. What was the imprudent accession of power given by Valen- 
tinian to the Bishop of Rome ? 

22. What was the professed object of the grant ? 

23. The Bishops were as imprudent as the Emperor ? 

24. However, the power thus granted was not as extensive as 
that claimed upon it by the Bishop of Rome ? 

25. The first council of Sardis, admitting its canon to be genuine, 
did not give unlimited power to the Pope ? 

26. When was the Bishop of Constantinople placed next in rank 
to the Bishop of Rome ? 

27. When were the four patriarchates appointed ? 

28. A fifth was subsequently established, at what time ? 

29. Various circumstances tended to increase the power of the 
Bishop of Rome ? 

30. Even the attempts of the Bishop of Constantinople to crush 
the Bishops of Alexandria and Antioch increased the power of his 
great rival ? 

31. What Romish prelate, in the fifth century, contributed most 
to this increase of power ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 365 

32. He gave great power to the priests by a change he made 
in Church discipline ? 

33. Vigilantins was accused of heresy, on what grounds 1 

34. Who was his great opponent ? 

35. On what occasion, and in what year, was the exarchate of 
Ravenna established ? 

36. How did the Vandal princes attempt to justify their per- 
secution of the Trinitarian Christians ? 

37. What is the celebrated Anti-Arian miracle ? 

38. How many persons attempted to explain away this miracle ? 

39. What very suspicious circumstance has given strength to 
their objections? 

40. The cause assigned for the silence of the two individuals 
is not sufficient ? 

41. Yet the testimony for the miracle is very strong ? 

42. What is the date of the decline in power of the Arian sect ? 

43. in what year did the Empire of the West terminate ? 

44. How did the Gothic princes restrain the power of the popes ? 

45. What was the controversy concerning the three chapters ? 

46. How was the edict of the Emperor received ? 

47. About what period was it published ? 

48. How did Justinian endeavour to settle the question ? 

49. What was the conduct of the Bishop of Rome ? 

50. What was the sixth general Council ? 

51 . What heresy was particularly the obj ect of their condemnation ? 

52. It is difficult to discover what were the sentiments of the 
Monothelites ? 

53. Are the acts of the sixth general Council received by the 
Bishop of Rome ? 

54. How far do the Greek and Roman Churches agree as to 
the number of general councils? 

55. What is the seventh general Council according to the Greek 
Church, what according to the Romish Church ? 

56. Were the decrees of the second Nicene Council rejected only 
by the Eastern Churches ? 

57. In subsequent years what was the objection which the popes 
had to call a general council ? 

58. What were the peculiar difficulties about the Council of Trent ? 

59. By whom was it at length summoned ? 

60. What power was claimed by the legates ? 

61. Why was the council divided into three assemblies ? 

62. How did the Pope secure his influence ? 

63. What was the first subject of dispute ? 



366 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

64. How was it settled ? 

65. The papal party evidently wished to exclude the Protestants ? 

66. How did the continental Protestants act ? 

67. In what countries have the decrees of the Council of Trent 
been implicitly received ? 

68. How far were they received in Spain ? 

69. How far in France ? 

70. How far do the Roman Catholics acknowledge their reception 
in Ireland ? 

71. On what grounds did the Church of England decline attend- 
ing the Council of Trent ? 

72. What influence do the different sessions of the Council of 
Trent appear to have had upon the proceedings of the Reformation 
in England ? 

73. John Knox, when offered an English bishopric, declined 
accepting it, on what ground? 

74. On going to Scotland he attempted the legal establishment 
of Presbyterianism, and how far did he succeed? 

75. The Parliament endeavoured to counteract this vote of the 
assembly, and how? 

76. They however subsequently passed acts which, in fact, esta- 
blished Presbyterianism ? 

77. James participated in the subversion of the episcopal power ? 

78. James, at one time, expressed his strong abhorrence of the 
English Liturgy? 

79. All parties in England had hopes of James amidst their fears ? 

80. What was the millenary petition ? 

81. How did the University of Cambridge answer their boasted 
numbers ? 

82. Previously to the discussion with the Puritans James held 
a consultation with the bishops of the English Church; for what 
purposes ? 

83. What was the effect of the Hampton Court Conference on 
James ? 

84. How did he show this in his conduct towards Scotland ? 

85. How were the new bishops consecrated ? 

86. How was all cause of jealousy removed ? 

87. Some difficulty in the way of their consecration ? 

88. What was Archbishop Bancroft s decision ? 

89. How did Abbot remove the difficulty ? 

90. In the commencement of Charles's reign the House of Com- 
mons took the place of the convocation ? 

91. How did Laud expose their interference ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 367 

92. He declares that even if they were the proper tribunal, their 
decision was contrary to the principles of the Reformation ; why ? 

93. Improper conduct of the King to the Irish Roman Catholics ? 

94. Archbishop Ussher and the Irish prelates remonstrate; on 
what grounds? 

95. Bishop Warburton's opinion of the remonstrance and its 
author ? 

96. Laud's correct notions of the English and Romish Churches 
provoked the greatest animosity against him ? 

97. Laud, though accused of popery, refused permission to a 
Roman Catholic Bishop to officiate, and why ? 

98. Laud arranges badly the restoration of uniformity in the 
Scottish Church? 

99. The canons were introduced without any regard to the 
proper forms? 

100. The attempt to introduce the liturgy failed, how ? 

1Q1. What was the difficulty in passing the new canons for the 
English Church ? 

102. What was the legal opinion concerning the duration of 
a convocation? 

103. Had the case ever occurred before ? 

104. What doctrine calculated to excite objection was promul- 
gated in the first canon ? 

105. In another the convocation exceeded their powers ? 

1 06. How was this remedied ? 

107. Had these canons passed unanimously ? 

108. What had been Laud's remark upon the opposition ? 

109. How did the House of Commons act with respect to these 
canons ? 

110. Were they justified in this ? 

111. What was the statute under which the convocation made 
canons ? 

112. Did the Commons recede ? 

113. After the suppression of episcopacy, and the deprivation 
of her ministers, the English Church might have applied to herself 
the apostolical characteristic of rejoicing in persecution ? 

114. What was the court Cromwell formed for judging can- 
didates for the ministry ? 

115. The authority of these Triers was absolute ? 

116. Considerable difficulties in attempting to keep up the suc- 
cession of Bishops? 

117. What was BramhalTs plan ? 
118 "What was Lord Clarendon s I 



368 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

119. What was the plan adopted ? 

120. How was it prevented from being carried into execution ? 

121. On the accession of Charles II., what were the demands 
of the Presbyterians ? 

122. What was the form of Church government recommended 
by Archbishop Ussher? 

123. How did the Presbyterians refine upon this plan ? 

124. What was the immediate consequence of the conference 
between the Bishops and Presbyterians ? 

125. The declaration displeased both Churchmen and Presby- 
terians ? 

126. And also the Parliament ? 

127. What was the first attempt of Charles to assert a dispensing 
power in the crown ? 

128. What induced the clergy to give up the power of taxing 
themselves ? 

129. What monarch had first adopted the plan of making the 
clergy tax themselves in their convocation? 

130. And how did he do it ? 

131. What was the shadow of compensation which the clergy 
received for giving up the power of taxing themselves? 

132. What was the inevitable result of giving up this power ? 

133. Two distinguished men formed a plan in Charles's reign 
for enlarging the terms of conformity ? 

134. The plan was opposed by a strange coalition ? 

135. What was the origin of the Test Act ? 

136. What was the leading argument against it ? 

137. What remarkable support did the Bill receive from a 
Roman Catholic? 

138. How did he justify his support of it ? 

139. What consultation of the Protestant Divines on the con- 
tinent took place about this time? 

140. What was Claude's opinion about the Independents ? 

141. What was his opinion about the English Presbyterians \ 



1835. 

"The Examination Paper for 1835 was never printed, in con- 
sequence of the illness of the Professor of Divinity immediately 
after the Examination." — MS. Note by the Regius Professor of 
Divinity. 



* IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 369 

1836. 

Rev. James H. Todd. 

1. The polytheism of the Greeks and Romans had a natural 
tendency to make them tolerant of foreign religions ? 

2. One nation only of ancient polytheists is remarkable for reli- 
gious wars, — cause of this ? 

3. By what principle was the toleration of the ancient Romans 
limited ? 

4. This accounts for their want of toleration towards Christianity ? 

5. What is the cause assigned for the first persecution of Chris- 
tians under a Roman emperor ? 

6. The increased toleration of Christianity in the third century 
is attributed to what cause? 

7. The defection of Christians during the persecution of Decian 
(249) gave rise to a remarkable controversy? 

8. The libelli pads are supposed to have given occasion to a 
practice which afterwards, in the hands of the Roman pontiffs, became 
one of the grossest corruptions of Christianity ? 

9. The episcopal power of issuing indulgences, as practised in 
the first six centuries, differed widely from that since introduced 
by the Roman pontiffs ? 

10. The practice of issuing indulgences led, in the middle ages, 
to an erroneous opinion as to the extent or efficacy of Christ's atone- 
ment ? 

11. When and on what occasion were indulgences first sold? 

12. Under that pretence were indulgences sold by Leo X. ? 

13. What was the original question between Luther and Tetzel ? 

14. Luther's motive in opposing the sale of indulgences is mis- 
represented by Cochlaeus, and after him by Mr Hume ? 

15. This slander is easily refuted ? 

16. The existence of ascetics in the primitive Church does not 
argue the antiquity of Romish monasticism? 

17. The prevalence of ascetic practices led to an erroneous prin- 
ciple in morals, which has since been applied to support the Romish 
notion of supererogation ? 

18. At what period and in what form did monachism first appear 
in the Christian Church ? 

19. At what period and by whom was the institution of Coenobites 
first introduced ? 

20. The early state of monachism differed in many important 
respects from the system now known by the name ? 

16—5 



•370 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

21. When and by whom was the obligation of a vow, on the 
admission to the monastic state, introduced ? 

22. What was the main design of the rule of St Benedict in the 
6th century, and the principal change effected by it in the state 
of western monachism \ 

23. The two celebrated orders of mendicant monks, although 
in their first constitution essentially different, gradually adopted each 
the peculiarities of the other ? 

24. The modern forms of the Benedictine order admitted into 
their original constitution an essential peculiarity in which they 
differed from all ancient monks ? 

25. The increase of the mendicant orders was prohibited, and 
those orders reduced to four, — when and by whom ? 

26. Origin and history of the contests between the Dominican 
order and the University of Paris? 

27. This controversy developed some principles, in opposition 
to Papal usurpation, which were afterwards fully established at the 
Reformation ? 

28. This was remarkably exhibited in the ground taken by Wil- 
liam de St Amour, in his celebrated treatise against the mendicants? 

29. The decision of Innocent IV. respecting the interpretation of 
the Franciscan rule of poverty, gave rise to a schism in the order ? 

30. The privileges granted to the mendicants undermined Epis- 
copal authority, and the ministry of the clergy ? 

31. The true reason of the enmity displayed by other Franciscans 
against the sect called Fratricelli, is not to be traced to the zeal of the 
latter for a reformation ? 

32. How does Mosheim distinguish between the Fratricelli and 
the Spirituals ? 

33. He distinguishes between the Fratricelli and Bizochi or Be- 
guins of the Franciscan order ? 

34. Origin of the teriiarii, or penitents, connected with the 
mendicant orders? 

35. Mosheim notices another sect of Beguins or Beghards, not 
connected with the Franciscan rule ? 

36. Mosheim corrects the account given by Limborch and others 
of the origin of the Inquisition ? 

37. The kind of inquisition established in the time of St Dominic 
differed essentially from the Inquisition properly so called ? 

38. From what period does Mosheim date the commencement 
of the Inquisition? 

39. The term Albigenses, as applied to the heretics of the 13th 
century, was used in a two-fold sense ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 0?i 

40. Origin of the term Albigenses in its limited sense ? 

41. The Waldenses were known by other names? 

42. Origin of the name of Leonists ? 

43. Origin of the name Insabbatati ? 

44. The opinions of the Waldenses differed widely from those 
of the Albigenses ? 

45. The Vaudois, according to Mosheim, differed amongst them- 
selves with respect to the character of the Church of Rome, and 
the obedience to be rendered to her doctrines? 

46. At what period, and by whom, was the controversy about 
the manner in which the body and blood of Christ are present in 
the Eucharist first started? 

47. How does Mosheim state the agreement of the Church on 
this subject, prior to the appearance of Radbert's book ? 

48. Radbert's doctrine was comprised in two propositions ? 

40. How was this doctrine received and opposed by the Emperor 
Charles the Bald ? 

50. The doctrine of Scotus appears to have differed in one im- 
portant respect from that of Bertram ? 

51. The agreement of the Church of the 9th century, in Ber- 
tram's views of the real presence, appears from another question 
to which the controversy led ? 

52. The doctrine of Scotus was revived in the 11th century ; by 
whom ? 

53. The doctrine of Berengarius, at least on one of the points 
disputed, is not very well ascertained, — Mosheim's opinion ? 

54. The attempts made to force Berengarius to receive the doc- 
trine of transubstantiation prove that the doctrine of the Romisli, 
Church, at that period, was not fixed? 

55. It appears that Gregory VII. himself did not maintain the 
doctrine of transubstantiation in its fullest sense ? 

56. The third formula which was imposed upon Berengarius, at 
the second council held at Rome, differed from the other two 1 

57. It appears from the history of this controversy that the 
authority of a council was at that time considered superior to that 
of the Pontiff? 

58. When and by what authority was the term transubstantia- 
tion introduced into the creed of the Roman Church ? 

59. The 4th council of Lateran was not a free or lawful 
council ? 

00. Another fundamental doctrine of the present creed of the 
Roman Church was then also for the first time established ? 

61. The belief in transubstantiation was rendered popular in 



3?2 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

the 13th century by means more efficacious than the decree of the 
Lateran council? 

62. In the loth century a remarkable controversy was set on 
foot between the Dominicans and Franciscans respecting the blood 
of Christ'? 

63. How was the contest terminated by Pius II.? 

64. The doctrine of Zwingle concerning the efficacy of the sacra- 
ments generally ? 

65. Calvin, although agreeing with Zwingle in his general doc- 
trine of sacramental grace, appears to have differed from him slightly 
in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper ? 

66. A controversy, respecting the person of Christ, arose out 
of the disputes about the Eucharist between the Lutheran and 
Reformed Churches ? 

67. Mosheim reduces the doctrinal differences between the Lu- 
therans and the Reformed to three heads ? 

68. After the death of Luther, the Helvetic and Belgic churches 
exhibited a greater disposition to agree on the subject of the Eucharist? 

69. How does Hooker state the agreement of all parties, in his 
own times, concerning what he calls "that which alone is material" ? 

70. To what was the whole question thus driven, according to 
Hooker ? 

71. To what political event must be attributed the decline of 
Papal dominion in the 14th century ? 

72. What were the assertions made by Boniface in the cele- 
brated bull, Unam Sanctam? 

73. Explain the circumstances which occasioned the removal of 
the Papal court to Avignon ? 

74. The residence of the Popes at Avignon was injurious to the 
Papal power? 

75. It increased the abuses and unpopularity of the Papal court ? 

76. The true reason of the enmity of the Roman Cardinals against 
Urban VI.? 

77. The pretext on which they pronounced his election null 
and void ? 

78. Three modes of terminating the schism of the rival Popes 
were suggested by the University of Paris ? 

79. A remarkable step was taken by the French Church when 
Benedict XIII. refused to agree to any measure for promoting a 
union? 

80. On the assembling of the council of Pisa, a difficulty pre- 
sented itself, respecting the lawfulness of the council ? 

81. How was this difficulty evaded? 



IX ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 



373 



82. Instead of healing the schism, the council of Pisa increased 
the evil ? 

83. The extinction of the schism was reserved for another council ? 

84. This council passed two celebrated decrees against the irre- 
sponsible power of the Popedom ? 

85. What was the chief and confessedly the principal business 
for which the council of Constance was summoned ? 

86. By what means, according to Mosheim, was the council pre- 
vented from effecting any thing towards a reformation % 

87. The council of Basil, which was convened immediately after 
that of Constance, was assigned two subjects for legislation ? 

88. A remarkable contest took place between this council and 
the Pope, immediately after it met ? 

89. The condition upon which the legates of the Pope were 
admitted into this council is remarkable % 

90. The contest between Eugene IV. and the council of Basil 
ended in a new schism % 

91 . The principal business which occupied the council of Florence 1 

92. What were the conditions of union proposed to the Greeks ? 

93. The peace established by this council was not lasting ? 

94. How did the contest between the Popes and the council of 
Basil terminate % 

95. On what grounds did the Protestant party of the 16th cen- 
tury oppose the assembling of a general council 1 

96. The Papal party were equally afraid of a council, and trusted 
to a very different mode of settling the dispute ? 

97. Episcopal authority was efFectually crushed in the Church 
of Rome by the council of Trent ? 

98. The decrees of the Trent council are not received with equal 
reverence by all the countries which acknowledge the Papal claims 1 

99. The Pope endeavoured to get representatives from the Eng- 
lish Church to sit at Trent, — how was the attempt received ? 

100. How did Jewell explain the motives which induced the 
English government to refuse recognizing the Trent council ? 

101. What was the origin of the Hampton Court Conference ? 

102. The grievances of the- Puritans were divided, in the mil- 
lenary petition, into four heads ? 

103. What was the origin of the oath of allegiance, and when 
was this oath first imposed 1 

104. The oath of allegiance is not to be confounded with the 
oath of supremacy ? 

105. In the oath of supremacy, as imposed in Elizabeth's reign, 
an alteration was made in the former oath 1 



374 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

106. An explanation of the oath of supremacy was put forth 
by Elizabeth soon after ? 

107. When was the last change made in the oaths of supremacy 
and allegiance ? 

108. The authority of the first four general councils is recognized 
by the Church of England ? 

109. The imposition of the oath of allegiance, in the reign of 
James I., divided the English Romanists, and weakened their strength ? 

110. Two of the demands of the Puritans at the Hampton Court 
Conference were complied with ? 

111. On what grounds did the remonstrants absent themselves 
from the Synod of Dort ? 

112. The result of the synod was, in the end, detrimental to 
the Genevan doctrines ? 

113. What reason does Mosheim assign for the contempt with 
which the decisions of the synod were received in England ? 



1837. 

1. What is the date of St Paul's arrival at Rome according to 
Eusebius ? 

2. What according to Archbishop Ussher's chronology ? 

3. How can the time of Felix's recall be determined from pro- 
fane history ? 

4. If this date be established, what peculiar inducements had 
St Paul to visit Britain ? 

5. What is the expression which Clemens uses when describing 
the extent of St Paul's travels ? 

6. The phrase of Tepfxa t?]? cWew? is most applicable to Britain? 

7. One of the persons mentioned by St Paul, in the epistle to the 
Romans, is said to have been left by him as the first British bishop ? 

8. This overturns many claims of the Roman see ? 

9. What was the earliest protest of the British Churches against 
the corruptions of Rome ? 

10. When was monachism introduced into England ? 

11. When was civil authority in England first claimed by the 
Pope? 

12. When did the Pope's legate first preside in England ? 

13. What was the cause of the great increase of papal power 
during the reigns of the first Henry and Stephen ? 

14. In the reign of John a decision of the Pope, Innocent III., 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 375 

contrary to all law, was the cause of weakening his power considerably 
in England ? 

15. The conversion of Livonia was carried on in a manner suited 
to the character of Innocent III.? 

16. Who were the Knights Sword-bearers? 

17. A layman, a duke of Saxony, seems to have understood much 
better the genius of Christianity in his conduct to the Sclavonians ? 

18. However, these conversions were attended with consequences 
more injurious to Christianity even than cruelty? 

19. The crusades gave rise to three military orders? 

20. What were the Knights Hospitallers originally ? 

21. What change took place when it became a military order? 

22. How was the dispute about investitures settled by the Diet of 
Worms ? 

23. When was the Diet of Worms held ? 

24. But one Englishman was ever Pope, who was he ? 

2-5. He carried the pretensions of the Roman pontiff to an extra- 
ordinary height ? 

26. For what purpose was the Council of Clarendon held ? 

27. What were the most remarkable of its constitutions ? 

28. The conduct of Becket was very inconsistent ? 

29. Were the Constitutions of Clarendon ever repealed ? 

30. When were regular canons first introduced into the Church ? 

31. How did they differ from monks ? 

32. What was the origin of the Carmelites ? 

33. The Carmelites reject an origin of so modern a date ? 

34. When did the Roman pontiffs first claim for themselves the 
power of indulgences ? 

35. What led them to this step ? 

36. Indulgences were first sold by the Popes under a laudable 
pretext ? 

37. What Pope first encouraged the mendicant orders ? 

38. For what reason ? 

39. How were their numbers restricted by Gregory X. ? 

40. What were the remarkable prerogatives granted to them ? 

41. By what assumed right did the Pope grant them the power 
of preaching without license from the bishop of the diocese ? 

42. A similar right was claimed in modern times ? 

48. Whence the enmity between the mendicant orders and the 
University of Paris ? 

44. Who was the principal opponent of the mendicant orders ? 

45. What prophecy did he consider as fulfilled by the establish- 
ment of the mendicant orders ? 



376 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

46. The followers of St Francis maintained that he was described 
in the book of Revelation ? 

47. What was the work called " The Everlasting- Gospel " ? 

48. What was the dispute among the Franciscans as to the vow 
of poverty ? 

49. What was the bull, Unam Sanctam ? 

50. What was its effect upon Philip of France ? 

51. How did Philip effectually weaken the power of the Roman see ? 

52. The removal to Avignon diminished the power of the Pope ? 

53. It increased the abuses of the Roman Church ? 

54. How was the period of this removal designated by Romans ? 

55. At what period had the Roman see reached the highest pitch 
of power ? v 

56. What was the opinion given by Gregory the Great about the 
title of Universal Bishop ? 

57. Had any council pronounced against it ? 

58. In what year does Jewell place its assumption ? 

59. What is the year generally assigned ? 

60. The period of 1260 years is generally counted from this year, 
yet differences of opinion exist as to the year of its termination ? 

61. Is it from this assumption that Milner dates the papal power? 

62. By whom had temporal power been given to the popes ? 

63. What additional power did Charlemagne give ? 

64. Popes shewed their ingratitude to the family of their bene- 
factor ? 

65. How was Melancthon led to embrace the principles of the 
Reformation ? 

66. In what year was the Diet held at Worms to consider the 
conduct of Luther ? 

67. Was it not contrary to the laws of the Church that religious 
matters should be decided by the Diet ? 

68. What was the result ? 

69. In the decision Charles showed himself the strong champion 
of papal power ? 

70. Why did the decision of the Diet produce very little effect ? 

71. The effect was still further diminished by the Diet of Spires ? 

72. And also by subsequent events ? 

73. When was the name of Protestants first assumed? 

74. Roman Catholic writers always give a different meaning to 
the name, and why ? 

75. What were the articles of Torgaw ? 

76. How did they differ from the confession of Augsburgh ? 

77. Who drew up that confession ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 377 

78. Why was Cranraer slow in drawing up articles ? 

79. What compelled him to decide ? 

80. Between the first presenting of the articles and their final 
adoption, what remarkable change was made in them ? 

81. How can we ascertain their original form ? 

82. Why was the article on predestination introduced ? 

83. At what period can we trace the first outline of the English 
convocation ? 

84. When was the outline filled up % 

85. How did the synod of York differ from that of Canterbury ? 

86. The whole English Church was sometimes represented by 
one assembly ? 

87. What is the present state of the convocation ? 

88. Why has it not of later years done any business ? 

89. What was the cause of its suspension % 

90. When did the last Irish convocation meet ? 

91. What was the first effectual resistance to popish tyranny in 
England ? 

92. What do you understand by provisions and provisors % 

93. Wickliffe was not only the precursor, but the prototype of the 
English Reformation % 

94. Who first had devised the seven sacraments ? 

95. By what General Council were they first confirmed ? 

96. Had they been previously sanctioned by any Pope ? 

97. What error of popery did Wickliffe find most difficulty in 
combating ? 

98. Roman Catholic writers assign an unworthy motive for Wick- 
liffe's opposition to the papal see ? 

99. This statement is not true 1 

100. What excited Wickliffe's opposition to the see of Rome ? 

101. What confirmed his opposition ? 

102. For what purpose had he gone to Bruges ? 

103. How did he escape being put to death for heresy % 

104. When were the first statutes against heresy passed in England ? 

105. What had been the punishment of heresy in the early Church ? 

106. What was the effect of this excommunication ? 

107. Who was the first heretic that maintained Jesus was a mere 
man ? 

108. Had not Cerinthus and Ebion maintained this opinion before ? 

109. That the Christians had worshipped Christ at an early period 
appears from a remarkable circumstance at the martyrdom of Polycarp ? 

110. How was Theodotus' doctrine received at Rome ? 

111. Victor extended his power of excommunication too far ? 



878 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

112. Did all the eastern Churches observe Easter at the Jewish 
time? 

113. How was unity restored to the Church after this excom- 
munication ? 

1 14. Who was the first that assumed the merit of worshipping 
one God, like the modern Unitarians ? 

115. Yet Praxeas had conferred a signal benefit upon the Church ? 

116. What was the first instance of royal favour bestowed upon 
the Christian Church ? 

117. Christians enjoyed more ease under the wicked reign of 
Commodus, than under that of the philosophic Aurelius ? 

118. Alexandria was detrimental, and at the same time useful to 
Christianity ? K 

119. What was the first instance of a Christian pleading before 
the Roman Senate ? 

120. What was the extraordinary result ? 

121. A system of monachism had existed at a very early period 
in Egypt ? 

122. Who was the first hermit ? 

123. What was the Novatian heresy ? 

124:. Novatus and Novatian were different persons ? 

125. What intercourse took place between them ? 

126. Though Novatian had been roused by Novatus, yet his 
heresy took a contrary turn from the conduct of Novatus to Cyprian? 

127. What most irregular ecclesiastical act had Novatus com- 
mitted ? 

128. The objection to Csecilianus as having been ordained by one 
of the traditores, was very strange ? 

129. Who were the traditores ? 

130. How was Csecilianus established bishop? 

131. By whose order did he attend at Rome ? 

132. How was Constantine compelled to hold the Council of Nice ? 

133. The Arians complained that unscriptural words were added 
to the Creed ? 

134 . The council was compelled to do so, how ? 

135. What points beside the Creed did the council determine ? 

136. The celebration of Easter was not observed, according to the 
Nicene rule, at a late period in the British Church ? 

137. Where do the Greek and Latin Churches first differ as to 
the number of councils ? 

138. What councils did the Church of England ever admit the 
authority of? 

139. In what document ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 379 

1838. 
Mr Moore. 

1. What account does Mosheim give of the constitution the 
primitive Churches derived from Jerusalem ? 

2. At what period, according to Mosheim, did an entire exclusion of 
the people from the administration of ecclesiastical affairs take place ? 

8. Mosheim admits three distinct orders ? 

4. There is one saying of our Lord which is much insisted on by 
those who contend for an equality among Christians ? 

5. The design of this passage contradicts any such inference ? 

6. Our Lord includes himself in this passage ? 

7. He assigns spiritual power to the Apostles at the same time ? 

8. Potter remarks that the plenitude of Apostolic power was 
given to the Apostles at three different times ? 

9. Supposing that St Peter is the rock on which Christ promised 
to build his Church, the same is elsewhere said of all the other 
Apostles ? 

10. Four different interpretations of this passage were given by 
the Fathers ? 

11. All agree as to the first Bishop of Jerusalem ? 

12. St Peter defers to St James on an important occasion, and 
St Paul gives the account of his missionary labours to him ? 

18. Where does tradition say the Apostles severally preached the 
Gospel ? St Andrew, where % St Thomas and St Bartholomew, where ? 

14. The Apostles exercised particular authority over the churches 
they planted ; this appears from a comparison of St Paul's Epistles ? 

15. Potter assigns strong reasons why we are not to expect as dis- 
tinct an account of the orders of ministers in the Apostles' times as 
afterwards ? 

16. Ministers were not ordained at the first visit of an Apostle ? 
17- Constitution of the Church at Jerusalem ? 

18. The occasion on which presbyters are first mentioned is 
clearly in connexion with the first distinctive mark of St James? 

19. Three distinct orders at Antioch ? 

20. How did Constantine manage to appropriate to himself and 
Iris successors an important share of ecclesiastical administration ? 

21. The pre-eminence of the Bishop of Rome arose in the first 
instance, according to Mosheim, from what causes? 

22. Among other circumstances which favoured the assumption 
of supreme authority by the Bishop of Rome was a remarkable law 
of Valentinian ? 



380 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

23. What council do the assertors of Roman supremacy especially 
insist on, and what is the amount of its testimony according to 
Mosheim ? 

24. What account does Mosheim give of the conversion of Livo- 
nia, Finland, &c. ? 

25. When does he say the Aristotelic philosophy began to 
supersede the Platonic? 

26. Platonic doctrines still maintained their influence over cer- 
tain sects ? 

27. Scholastic theology, when first placed among the sciences ? 

28. From whom did the Papal election get its present form, and 
what were its advantages ? 

29. The extraordinary power of erecting new kingdoms, when 
first claimed and when first exercised ? 

30. What does Mosheim state to have been the probable order of 
conversion to Christianity in Europe, and what weight does he give to 
Bede's testimony as to its introduction into Britain ? 

31. What confirmation can you give of Bede's account ? 

32. The extraordinarily rapid progress of Christianity was by 
ancient writers esteemed miraculous ; how far are these accounts to be 
modified according to Mosheim ? 

33. What second causes does he think specially worthy of notice ? 

34. Various accounts have been given of the origin of the Wal- 
denses ? 

35. The statement given in Maclaine's translation of Mosheim is 
rather confused ? 

36. What account does Mosheim give of their doctrinal opinions ? 

37. Whence did they derive their rules of Christian conduct ? 

38. What account is given of their Church government ? 

39. By whom was Prussia converted ? 

40. Before Wickliffe an attempt was made to reform partially 
the English Church? 

41. On what occasion was Grostete excommunicated ? 

42. Edward the First's conduct was calculated to fasten his clergy 
in dependence on the Church of Rome ? 

43. State the first remarkable legislative enactment against the 
encroachment of the Church of Rome ? 

44. Under Edward Catholic truth was defended against heresy by 
an eminent English divine ? 

45. In attacking Pelagius, Bradwardine condemns a prominent 
Romish doctrine ? 

46. Roger Bacon's testimony as to the relative importance of 
Scripture, and the Sentences, is remarkable? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 381 

47. Previous to any personal collision with the Pope, Wickliffe 
opposed him on public principle ? 

48. Lingard has therefore been in error in his statement' of this 
matter ? 

49. He was also publicly challenged to defend parliament before 
any Papal decision ? 

50. In what sense did Wickliffe assert the temporal property of 
the Church to be alms ? 

51. One remarkable practice of the mendicant orders, to which 
in great part their success was owing, Wickliffe adopted ? 

52. What claim has been set up in opposition to Wickliffe's 
giving the first complete English version of the Scriptures? 

53. What is Mosheim's testimony as to the faith of the Church 
up to the ninth century with regard to the Eucharist X 

54. First Papal interference with this controversy ? 

55. The word "transubstantiation", when introduced? 

56. A remarkable appeal of Wickliffe asserts the authority of the 
King in ecclesiastical matters ? 

57. In combating abuses Luther did not deny the right of the 
Church to judge in ecclesiastical matters? 

58. Zwingle, the Swiss reformer's attempt at reformation was also 
in conformity with the discipline of the Church X 

59. Several matters were at issue between the Papal power and 
Parliament before the Reformation ? 

60. By immemorial practice national synods have condemned 
heresies and errors; mention some instances? 

61. Why did not the Church of England send her decrees of 
doctrine to be approved of by other Churches? 

62. What is the accurate date of two separate worships and com- 
munions in England? 

63. Lord Coke states the cause of the first appearance of recusancy ? 

64. This would go to attach the crime of schism on the Church 
of Rome, according to what Bossuet states to be universally received 
as its character X 

65. Upon what occasion did Henry first propose to be acknow- 
ledged supreme head of the Church of England? 

66. With what qualification was the supremacy acknowledged X 

67. Henry seems to have understood that this confined his supre- 
macy to temporals X 

68. How does Burnet say this headship was generally under- 
stood X 

09. Since Bossuet Roman theologians are agreed on the final 
proof of an oecumenical council? 



382 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

70. The Roman Catholics hold a council confirmed by the Pope 
to be infallible ; the diversity of opinion among them on this subject 
proves the fallacy of the tenet ? 

71. The authority of what councils is admitted by the Catholic 
Church, and state the proof of the opinion of the Church of England 
on the subject ? 

72. The mode of holding the fourth Council of Lateran, in which 
the word " transubstantiation" was introduced, differed essentially 
from the mode in which former councils were held ? 

73. What heresies were condemned at this council, and specially 
with regard to the Eucharist ? 

74. It is probable that Innocent meant here only to assert the 
real presence in opposition to the Manichseans? 

75. He had a remarkable example in the Council of Nice for the 
introduction of a new word in opposition to a new heresy ? 

76. When did the Roman Catholics first assert that the Pope's 
Legate presided at Nice ? 

77. What matters of discipline were decreed at Nice ? 

78. What are the authentic documents of this council ? 

79. The first Synod of Constantinople was held in what year, for 
what purpose, and who appeared on the part of the Bishop of Rome? 

80. What heresies were here condemned, and what alterations 
were made in the Nicene Creed? 

81. The General Council of Ephesus was held, against what heresies? 

82. Doubts have been thrown on the authenticity of this coun- 
cil, from what source ? 

83. The Pope's Legate presided at Chalcedon, under peculiar 
circumstances ? 

84. The Synod of Trent cannot properly claim the authority of 
an oecumenical council ? 

85. The reception of its decrees by certain Churches is not a 
proof of the points under controversy ? 

86. The Roman Churches were divided in the sixteenth century 
as to the source of its infallibility ? 

87. The Church of Rome has placed an almost invincible barrier 
between its clergy and reform ? 

88. The words " it seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us," 
are improperly used by General Councils? 

89. St Peter makes the same inference as is contained in this 
assertion ? 

90. At the period of the Reformation for what time had the 
Church of Ireland been subject to the Roman See? 

91. When did the Irish archbishops first receive palls from Rome ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 383 



1839. 



1. When and where was the first apology for Christianity pre- 
sented -to a Heathen governor ? 

2. When was the first persecution of the Christians by a Roman 
Emperor ? 

3. What were the causes assigned by him for this persecution ? 

4. What did Tacitus mean by saying Christians were odio humani 
generis convict i ? 

5. What was the cause of the persecution excited by Domitian ? 

6. How does it appear that at the accession of Trajan there was 
not any law against a Christian ? 

7. What brought the Christians immediately under the notice of 
Pliny? 

8. What was Trajan's answer to Pliny ? 

9. What was the answer of Adrian to a similar application ? 

10. How did Adrian's edict to a certain degree protect the 
Christians ? 

11. What was the perpetual edict issued by Adrian ? 

12. How did this affect the Christians ? 

13. What insult did Adrian offer to the Jews ? 

14. Is it known what was the particular cause of Ignatius' con- 
demnation ? 

15. Why was he sent to Rome ? 

16. Exposure to wild beasts was the punishment for two crimes, 
of both which the Christians were accused ? 

17. When Ignatius came to Asia Minor, several bishops waited 
upon him; with what peculiar object? 

18. Did they obtain it ? 

19. What was the most probable duration of these miraculous 
gifts in the Christian Church ? 

20. How does this appear from St Paul's Epistle to the Romans % 

21. Remarkable difference between the Epistle of Ignatius to the 
Roman Church and those to the Asiatic % 

22. What was Severus's first step towards attacking the Christians ? 

23. Severus had been favourable to them before he was emperor ? 

24. The spirit of Christianity suffered most materially at its very 
establishment, from the adoption of two erroneous maxims ? 

25. What were the political circumstances which tended to in- 
crease the power of the Bishops of Rome % 

26 Who first claimed power as successor of St Peter ? 

27. On what had they previously founded their superiority ? 



384 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

28. When was their claim, as successors to St Peter, confirmed 
by a council ? 

29. Gelasius seems to have been most anxious to annoy the Bishop 
of Constantinople ? 

30. What was the first concession of supremacy to the Pope 1 

31. Yet at the Council of Chalcedon a remarkable decision showed 
that the supremacy allowed was far different from that subsequently 
claimed ? 

32. What are the periods from which the establishment of the 
Papal power is generally reckoned? 

33. What events distinguished these periods ? 

34. What was the nature of the Pope's jurisdiction under Charle- 
magne ? \ 

35. How did Adrian persuade Charlemagne to make such con- 
cessions of dominion? 

36. What circumstances had previously occurred, which enlisted 
the Popes in the cause of Charlemagne? 

37. The conduct of Charlemagne, with regard to the second 
Council of Nice, shows how little power the Popes then possessed? 

38. Charlemagne was greatly assisted by the British Churches ? 

39. How did Charlemagne show his opinion of the ignorance of 
his clergy ? 

40. Mosheim makes one exception to the general ignorance of 
the European clergy at that period ? 

41. What remarkable visit of Irishmen to France occurred in the 
reign of Charlemagne ? 

42. Many circumstances tend to prove the Eastern origin of the 
Irish Church? 

43. What was the number of bishops in Ireland ? 

44. By what arrangement was this number diminished ? 

45. What was their mode of celebrating Easter ? 

46. Were they Quartodecumans ? 

47. What lunar cycle did they use ? 

48. What is the first trace of communication between Rome and 
the Irish Church on this subject ? 

49. It was impossible but Christianity must have been introduced 
from Britain at an early period ? 

50. What circumstance at the end of the third century must 
have brought many Christians into Ireland? 

51. What reason has been assigned for the anxiety of Palladius 
about Ireland? 

52. What circumstance has caused considerable difficulty in 
ascertaining his true history? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 385 

53. What was the event of Palladius' mission ? 

54. Though no certain account is given of the cause of Palladius' 
failure, yet we may conjecture it from the recorded events of the 
British Church ? 

55. At the time of Palladius' death, where was St Patrick ? 

56. Who was the first Papal legate that exercised spiritual juris- 
diction in Ireland ? And in what year % 

57. How does it appear, on the authority of a Pope, that there 
were archbishops in Ireland before a pall had been sent from Rome ? 

58. How were the archiepiscopal sees arranged at that period ? 

59. When did the Pope first send palls to the four archbishops ? 

60. When was the power of the Roman See established in Ireland ? 

61. The celibacy of the clergy was not enforced by St Patrick ? 

62. A great abuse in the Irish Church proves that celibacy was 
not practised for many centuries ? 

63. What pope confirms the existence of this practice by the 
strong reprehension which he directed against it % 

64. What were the first acts with respect to religion in the reign 
of Elizabeth ? 

65. How did the Oath of Supremacy differ from that of Henry 
VIII. ? 

66. Why was the title of Supreme Head omitted ? 

67. What unconstitutional power was founded on this act % 

68. What were the limits of heresy ? 

69. When had the first statutes with regard to punishment for 
heresy been introduced into England? 

70. What was the occasion ? 

71. How did Elizabeth prevent the Romish clergy from enacting- 
hostile canons in convocation, while the Acts of Uniformity and Supre- 
macy were before Parliament ? 

72. What were the difficulties in the way of the consecration of 
Parker % 

73. These could have been easily obviated ? 

74. The first commission issued was not acted upon, and why ? 

75. What was the service performed ? 

76. How had that been restored % 

77. It is said that the Pope offered considerable concessions to 
Elizabeth ; what were they 1 

78. It seems scarcely probable that these could have been offered ? 

79. No concessions, in point of doctrine, made by the Reformers 
to the Roman Catholics ? 

80. • How did Bishop Jewell defend the refusal of the English to 
attend the Council of Trent ? 

17 



386 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

81. How far is his apology an authoritative document of the 
Church of England ? 

82. What sanction did No well's catechism receive ? 

83. What was the first step the English Bishops took to over- 
come the prejudices of the Puritans? 

84. What was the first cause of Cartwright's disaffection to the 
ecclesiastical constitution ? 

85. Remarkable instance of discernment in Bishop Jewell, with 
regard to the fomenters of the Puritan party? 

86. How was this afterwards confirmed in the reign of Charles ? 
87- Where and when was the first Presbyterian congregation 

established in England? 

88. How did Archbishop Whitgift commence proceedings against 
the Puritans? 

89. There were considerable doubts as to his power of enforcing 
the subscription ? 

90. How was it since put beyond cavil ? 

91. What was the ecclesiastical state of Scotland at the accession 
of James ? 

92. James accused of great insincerity to the Presbyterians ? 

93. What were the difficulties of consecrating the Scottish pre- 
lates in England? 

94. By whom were they consecrated? Why not by the arch- 
bishops ? 

95. What induced James to send deputies to the synod of Dort ? 

96. In what character did the English commissioners appear at 
the synod of Dort? 

97. What instructions had they received from James ? 

98. How was this incautiously divulged ? 

99. They were obliged to protest against one of the articles ? 

100. How was this protest treated ? 

101. How did they gain admission to the synod ? 

102. What oath did the members of the synod take ? 

103. What was the effect of the synod upon the English clergy ? 

104. At the very commencement of Charles' reign the House of 
Commons took the place of the Convocation ? 

105. What was the conduct of Archbishop Laud upon this occasion ? 

106. How did he endeavour to stop the Predestinarian controversy ? 

107. What were the two principles maintained by Archbishop 
Laud, which excited particular enmity against him? 

108. What was the legal objection to the canons passed by him in 
1640? 

109. What obnoxious doctrines were inculcated in them ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 387 

110. By what artifices was the bill for taking away the votes 
of the bishops in parliament carried? 

111. What act of imprudence gave strength to its supporters? 

112. What induced Charles to sign it ? 

113. The abolition of episcopacy soon followed ? 
11-1. Where was ecclesiastical jurisdiction vested ? 

115. What were the charges upon the clergy in the Saxon reigns ? 

116. How did William alter the tenure of bishops? 

117. How were the inferior clergy obliged to take share in the 
public burdens? 

118. How did the practice of taxing themselves in convocation 
originate ? 

119. How were the subsidies enforced ? 

120. What change in this was made at the Reformation? 

121. After the Reformation the clergy were convened by a double 
authority, and for a twofold purpose ? 

122. How came these authorities and purposes to be confounded ? 

123. What led first to the idea of taxing the clergy as the laity ? 

124. How was the surrender of their rights made by the clergy ? 

125. How did the clergy attempt to save their rights ? 

126. What was the great step taken by Charles II. for the intro- 
duction of Popery ? 

127. However, in this declaration there is a marked distinction 
between the Roman Catholics and other dissenters ? 

128. What was the conduct of the clergy when this declaration 
was published? 

129. What was the answer suggested by Tillotson to the King's 
complaint of these proceedings ? 

130. What was the conduct of the House of Commons with 
regard to the declaration? 



1840. 
Professor of Divinity. 



1 . What is the earliest direct testimony of the Britons having 
been converted to Christianity ? 

2. At what time was the treatise of Tertullian against the Jews 
written ? 

3. There is indirect testimony from Justin Martyr fifty years before ? 

4. Who is the earliest author that attributed their conversion to 
an Apostle ? 

17—2 



388 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

5. Some of the British antiquarians, in their zeal to have an 
Apostle for the founder of their Church, have paid little respect to the 
narrative of the Acts of the Aj)ostles ? 

6. Before what remarkable event does the earliest of British 
historians place the introduction of Christianity ? 

7. What is the evidence from Clemens Romanus that St Paul 
preached in Britain % 

8. What evidence is there that two individuals mentioned in the 
Epistle to Timothy were Britons ? 

9. At what council did British bishops first appear ? 

10. In what year was the Council of Aries held ? 

11. The cause of a greater number not attending maybe collected 
from a circumstance which took place at the Council of Ariminium ? 

12. In what year was the Council of Ariminium held % 

13. Who was the first British martyr ? 

14. What were the circumstances which led to his martyrdom ? 

15. What was the first intercourse between Britain and the Pope ? 

16. How had the British princess become a Christian % 

17. The story of Lucius and Pope Eleutherius appears to be 
fabulous ? 

18. In his endeavours to send missionaries into England, Gregory 
was undoubtedly influenced by pure motives ? 

19. What is the action of Gregory which Gibbon selects as the 
object of attack? 

20. What were the circumstances which must have predisposed 
Gregory to the cause of Phocas ? 

21. Gregory's letter of congratulation to Phocas was very guarded ? 

22. Why did Gregory oppose the title of Universal Bishop ? 

23. What title of humility did he himself assume at the same 
time ? 

24. Who was the first Pope that claimed the deposing power ? 

25. On what did he ground this assumption of power % 

26. What Scripture authority did he produce ? 

27. The Roman Catholics now say that they do not rest it on 
divine authority ; how is this refuted by a remarkable event connected 
with this country ? 

28. Some centuries later the Pope exercised the rights of a tem- 
poral sovereign in this country % 

29. Who was the first Pontiff that exercised the power of creating 
new kingdoms ? 

30. The pontificate of Alexander III. was distinguished by several 
most important events in Papal history ? 

31. When did the Bishop of Rome become a temporal prince ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 389 

32. What was the nature of his j urisdiction under Charlemagne ? 
S3. After the death of Charlemagne how did the Popes support 
their tottering power % 

34. To whom did the Roman Catholics refer the Decretal 
Epistles ? 

35. When did Isidore of Seville live ? 

36. A strange mistake has arisen in the name of the supposed 
author ? 

37. Another forgery was introduced to support the decretals ? 

38. When did the Roman Pontiffs claim for themselves the power 
of canonization ? 

39. In what century was the first great change made in the mode 
of electing the Pope ? 

40. What gave occasion to this ? 

41 . Who were the Cardinals at this time ? 

42. Had the name Cardinal originally heen so conferred ? 

43. When were the three orders of Cardinals established as they 
exist at present ? 

44. In what century were the mendicant orders established ? 

45. When were they reduced to four ? 

46. What were the four ? 

47. Where had the Carmelites their origin ? 

48. What is their own account of their origin % 

40. What celebrated Grecian do they reckon among their number ? 

50. Who were the hermits of St Augustine % 

51. What was the first name of the Dominicans ? 

52. By what means did the mendicant orders obtain their great 
ascendant over their people ? 

53. What had been the regulation carried by Innocent III. at 
the council with respect to confession ? 

54. How did the mendicant orders violate this % 

55. How did the successive Popes settle this controversy ? 

56. What was the compromise which Martin IV. proposed % 

57. This did not produce the desired effect ? 

58. The mendicant orders destroyed all episcopal government % 

59. What was the ultimate decision with respect to their powers 
of hearing confession ? 

60. Where did Wickliffe first become remarkable ? 

61. What decided his opposition to the Pope % 

62. For what purpose had he gone to Bruges ? 

63. Remarkable similarity between this and an event in Luther's 
life? 

64. What had disgusted Luther at Rome ? 



390 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

65. How did Wickliffe escape the vengeance of the Ecclesiastics ? 

66. What event conspired to assist the friendship of the Duke of 
Lancaster in defending him ? 

67. What doctrine of Wickliffe's was most offensive to the people % 

68. How long before had the doctrine of transubstantiation been 
proposed ? 

69. What were the two propositions put forward by Radbertus ? 

70. What was Bertram's answer to the second proposition ? 

71. How does it appear that the Church of England was not at 
that time tainted with the doctrine of transubstantiation ? 

72. How does it appear that in the eleventh century the Papal 
power had not reached its height in England % 

73. In the following century it was still further restricted ? 

74. What were the principal enactments of the Constitutions of 
Clarendon hostile to the Papal power % 

75. These restrictions were followed up by Edward I. ? 

76. What event subsequent to his reign gave the great power to 
the Ecclesiastics ? 

77. What was Henry VIII.'s first step to throw off the power of 
the Pope? 

78. Although he had thrown off the power of the Pope, he con- 
tinued to his death a Roman Catholic ? 

79. Elizabeth's first rupture with the Pope was not voluntary on 
her part ? 

80. What was Paul IV.'s answer to the notification made of her 
accession ? 

81 . How did she receive this ? 

82. What measures accelerated the separation of the non-con- 
formists ? 

83. How does it appear that the Puritans could not have been 
kept in the Church by concessions as to habits and ceremonies ? 

84. When was the first congregation of Dissenters established ? 

85. This had been preceded not long by a remarkable event? 

86. What had been the conduct of the Roman Catholics previous 
to this bull ? 

87. What were prophesyings ? 

88. By whom were their regulations drawn up ? 

89. What became of Cartwright ? 

90. How was Travers got rid of ? 

91. How did Archbishop Grindal endeavour to correct these pro- 
phesyings ? 

92. How did the House of Commons express their dissatisfaction 
at the suppression of the prophesyings ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 391 

93. How did James prevent his first Parliament from being the 
organ of puritanical complaint ? 

94. How were the canons of 1604 established ? 

95. How far can they be binding? 

96. What enactment was occasioned by the gunpowder plot ? 

97. How did the oath of allegiance differ from the oath of supre- 
macy ? 

98. How were the Roman Catholics divided ? 

99. What was the decision of the Pope ? 

100. It does not appear to have had much effect? 

101. What was the first act of Charles's Parliament with respect 
to religion % 

102. Nothing could be more unreasonable than the cry of Popery 
against Montague ? 

103. Montague, in his Challenge to the Jesuits, had gone further 
against Popery than he was warranted by the Church of England ? 

104. The second Parliament went still further than the first ? 

105. What, according to Mosheim, were the three objects of 
Charles? 

106. Charles's pecuniary distresses made him expose himself to 
the charge of Popery ? 

107. How was this composition with the recusants met in Ireland ? 

108. What was the plan set on foot by the Puritans for esta- 
blishing lectures in the market-towns ? 

109. How was it opposed by Archbishop Laud ? 

110. What was the objection to the establishment of the Canons 
of 1640? 

111. Had there been any precedent for the Convocation sitting- 
after Parliament had been prorogued ? 

112. There was a strong objection to one of the Canons on the 
ground of illegality ? 

113. What is the present state of the Convocation in England ? 

114. What of the Irish Convocation? 

115. What was the real cause of the Convocation having been 
suspended ? 

116. What gave occasion to the suspension in the reign of George ? 

117. Before that the Convocation was set in direct opposition to 
the wishes of the Crown ? 

118. What led the Convocation to make such a decided opposition 
to William? 

119. What was the measure which William wished particularly 
to carry ? 

120. Had the alterations in the Liturgy been previously prepared ? 



392 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

121. Were there any of the changes proposed which justified the 
fears of the Convocation ? 

122. What was the celebrated decree put forth by Oxford in the 
reign of Charles II. ? 

123. Did it assert any doctrine ? 

124. It contained the denial of two remarkable propositions 
which had been overthrown by Hooker, but were revived ? 

125. James adopted harsh measures towards the Dissenters ; for 
what purpose ? 

126. What was the event which excited the vigilance of the 
English nation against Popery ? 

127- What religious party in the Roman Catholic Church did 
James adopt ? < 

128. When the Parliament would not repeal the Test Acts, what 
course did James take ? 

129. What were the arguments in favour of the king's dispensing 
power ? 

130. What confusion of terms was there in these arguments ? 

131. How was the opposition to the king taken up? 

132. When the king prohibited preaching on controverted points, 
what course did the clergy take ? 

133. What part did the Dissenters take ? 

134. And why? 

135. What were the extraordinary powers of the Ecclesiastical 
Commission Court ? 

136. Of what persons did it consist ? 

137. Did the Archbishop of Canterbury oppose this commission ? 

138. Who was the first person cited before this court ? 

139. How were James's overtures to the Court of Rome received, 
and why ? 

140. What was the declaration appointed to be read in churches? 

141. The order was not without precedent ? 

142. On what grounds did the bishops determine not to have the 
declaration read ? 

143. The bishops after their acquittal showed great moderation? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 393 

1841. 

Rev. Joseph Carson. 

1. How does Mosheim explain the mode in which the election of 
Matthias to be an Apostle was conducted ? 

2. The terms of St Luke's narrative strongly favour the more 
usual opinion? 

3. Does the tradition of the early Church make any subsequent 
mention of the competitor of Matthias ? 

4. What is Mosheim's opinion as to the nature of the community 
of goods in the primitive Church ? 

o. It has been inferred, from a passage in Eusebius, that a sur- 
render of property was required only from those who devoted them- 
selves to the ministry ? 

6. A community of property in its utmost extent has been 
asserted by some Roman Catholic writers ;~ with what end ? 

7. The course which the preaching of the Gospel took, after the 
day of Pentecost, was in exact conformity with our Lord's words 
while on earth? 

8. Where do we find the earliest positive testimony to the ces- 
sation of miraculous powers in the primitive Church? 

9. How long did the Church of the Circumcision at Jerusalem 
continue, and who was its first Bishop? 

10. The Church which succeeded it was more exempt from 
Jewish prejudices than its predecessor? 

11. A remarkable proof of this was given in the Paschal contro- 
versy ? 

12. Two only of the seven Churches of Asia are known to have 
existed before St Paul's death ? 

13. In what words does Clement speak of St Paul's death, in his 
Epistle to the Church of Corinth ? 

14. What theory has been proposed to reconcile the various 
statements respecting the first Bishop of Rome? 

15. Where do we find the earliest positive mention of the exist- 
ence of Christianity in Britain? 

16. What was the first instance of aggression, on the part of a 
Roman Bishop, on the tranquillity of the Church? 

1 7- This aggression was repeated on the occasion of a remarkable 
controversy, in the middle of the third century ? 

18. The opinion of Cyprian as to the supremacy claimed by the 
Roman Church was clearly laid down on this occasion ? 

17—5 



394 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

19. What was the first occasion on which the civil authority was 
invoked in defence of orthodoxy, in the history of the Church ? 

20. Important pretensions were subsequently founded on the 
decision of Aurelian? 

21. When did the distinction between believers and catechumens 



commence 



22. This distinction was closely connected with the prevailing 
notions relative to the office of baptism ? 

23. What author first mentions the use of oil in baptism? and 
what was the source of this custom? 

24. The number of persecutions which befel the Christian Church 
has been variously computed by different authors? 

25. What seems to have been the reason for fixing upon the 
number ten ? 

26. It is clear, from one of the ancient laws of the republic, men- 
tioned by Cicero, that Roman polytheism was essentially intolerant ? 

27. Tertullian exposes with much force the inconsistency of Tra- 
jan's rescript to Pliny, respecting the persecution of the Christians ? 

28. What reason have we for believing that the persecution of 
Decius was much more severe than those which preceded it? 

29. The word heresy, in its original acceptation, was applied by 
St Luke without any imputation of censure? 

30. Mosheim distinguishes three classes of early heretics? 

31. In what words is St Paul supposed to allude to the Gnostic 
opinions ? 

32. The rejection of the Old Testament was a necessaiy con- 
sequence of the Gnostic theory? 

33. Two different, and almost opposite, opinions were held by 
the Gnostics regarding the death of Christ ? 

34. Doctrines similar to those of the modern Unitarians were 
advanced at an early period in the Church? 

35. What name was given to the followers of Sabellius, cha- 
racteristic of their peculiar opinions? 

36. How was the peculiar absurdity of the Patripassians avoided 
in the Gnostic theory? 

37. Who were the Libellatici ? 

38. The opinions of Novatian were, to a certain extent, adopted 
by an orthodox council of the Church ? 

39. The name adopted by the followers of Novatian was revived 
in more modern times ? 

40. Manes, in rejecting the authenticity of the Gospels, committed 
a singular inconsistency, according to Augustine ? 

41. One of the peculiarities by which Leo the Great detected 



IX ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 39 5 

the Manichaeans was remarkable, considering the quarter from which 
it proceeded ? 

42. In his account of the peculiar opinions of Montanus, Mosheim 
endeavours to establish a distinction which has no foundation ? 

43. Who was the most eminent among the followers of Montanus ? 

44. What was the first step taken by Constantine for the esta- 
blishment of Christianity? 

45. What facts have been chiefly relied on by those who call 
in question the sincerity of Constantine's conversion? 

46. These facts furnish very insufficient evidence against the 
sincerity of his belief? 

47. One of the early privileges conferred on the Church by Con- 
stantine laid the first foundation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction? 

48. In the management of the Church, Constantine assumed two 
powers not before belonging to the State ? 

49. Under what circumstances did the Arian controversy com- 
mence ? 

50. The different opinions which pervaded the Council of Nice 
were at length reduced to one single point ? 

51. Gibbon's account of this celebrated Council is manifestly 
improbable ? 

52. Besides the Arian controversy, another question was set at 
rest by the decision of the Council of Nice ? 

53. On how many occasions was Athanasius deposed ? 

54. Three words serve to distinguish the orthodox, Arian, and 
Semi- Arian opinions? 

55. One of the most remarkable Councils held in the fourth 
century gave a partial sanction to the Arian heresy? 

56. What caused the sudden spread of Arian opinions among the 
barbarous invaders of the empire ? 

57. In what years were the first four General Councils held? 

58. Each of the four General Councils condemned a remarkable 
heresy ? 

59. Hooker has concisely expressed the points decided in these 
Councils ? 

60. What was the Macedonian heresy, and by what Council wa* 
it condemned? 

61. The Emperor Julian made a remarkable attempt to impeach 
the truth of prophecy, with what result ? 

62. A plausible explanation of these singular phenomena has 
recently been proposed? 

63. When was Christianity formally established by the Roman 
Senate ? 



896 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

64. What Council first expressly enjoined the celibacy of the clergy? 

65. To what Council may the origin of appeals to Rome be traced ? 
They were subject to two restrictions? 

66. Leo the Great introduced an innovation in the discipline of 
the Church, which greatly augmented the influence of the clergy ? 

67. When was the last great change made in the mode of election 
of the Pope? 

68. Four different modes of electing the supreme Pontiff are 
mentioned by the historian of Leo X.? 

69. For what reason was the election by compromise given up ? 

70. On what occasion was the claim to temporal dominion over 
the British Isles first advanced by the Pope ? 

71. What was the origin of the name "Peter's pence," and by 
whom was the tax imposed in England? 

72. What remarkable privileges were conferred on the see of 
Canterbury by the Pope? 

73. In the Anglo-Saxon Church, what precaution was adopted to 
prevent any collision between the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions? 

74. An important change made by William the Conqueror greatly 
increased the power of the clergy ? 

75. At what time was the canonical code of the Romish Church 
first recognized in England? 

76. What were the principal subjects of canonical legislation? 

77. From what period did the contests between the civil and 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction commence in England? 

78. What was the chief cause of the progress of Papal usurpation 
in England, during the reigns of the first Henry and Stephen ? 

79. What compromise was made by Henry I. with regard to 
investitures ? 

80. What was the chief object of the Institutions of Clarendon? 

81. The first check to the Papal pretensions in England pro- 
ceeded from an unexpected quarter? 

82. Two important measures were adopted by Edward I. for 
reducing the Papal power in England? 

83. These two measures received their full completion in a sub- 
sequent reign ? 

84. When w T as the first Statute against heresy passed in England ? 

85. Wickliffe was not only the precursor, but the prototype of the 
English Reformation? 

86. Various derivations of the name of Lollards have been given ? 

87. Under what name did Wickliffe inveigh against the friars ? 

88. There w T ere three principal divisions, both of the military 
and religious orders? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 397 

89. By whom was the order of Knights Hospitallers originally 
founded ? 

90. What were the subsequeut fortunes of this celebrated Order ? 

91. At what time is it probable that the Benedictine Order was 
introduced into England? 

92. What were the four Orders of Friars ? 

93. There was a remarkable difference in the tenets of the Domi- 
nicans and Franciscans ? 

94. How did the Dominicans acquire the epithet of Jacobins ? 

95. What was the number of mitred abbots in England at the 
time of the Reformation ? 

96. What rank did the Prior of the Order of St John hold in 
England before the Order was suppressed? 

97- In what year was the Order of Jesuits founded ? 

98. How did their founder obtain the Pope's consent to the 
institution of this new Order? 

99. The Jesuits differed from the monastic Orders in two essen- 
tial points ? 

100. Besides the sources of wealth common to all the regular 
clergy, the Jesuits possessed one peculiar to themselves? 

101. Three pernicious effects arising from the institution of the 
Jesuits are mentioned by a modern historian? 

102. In the doctrinal reformation of the English Church, the 
natural order of proceeding was inverted? 

103. Two fundamental errors of the Church of Rome were 
marked out by Ridley, as the source of all others? 

104. The powers granted by Henry VIII. to his ecclesiastical 
vicegerent were revived by Elizabeth under another form? 

105. How was the authority of the High Commission Court with 
respect to heresy restrained ? 

106. What subjects were discussed in the first conference in 
Elizabeth's reign? 

107. What difficulty prevented the immediate consecration of 
Archbishop Parker ? 

108. On what ground do the Romanists allege that Parker's con- 
secration was uncanonical ? 

109. How is this objection answered? 

110. The Pope offered to make important concessions to Eliza- 
beth, on condition that she would return to the Romish communion ? 

111. How did Jewell defend the refusal of the English govern- 
ment to send representatives to the Council of Trent ? 

112. The Puritans, in the reign of Elizabeth, obtained a license 
to preach, under the authority of a Papal bull ? 



398 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

113. The grievances mentioned in the millenary petition were 
divided into four heads ? 

114. In the consecration of the Scottish bishops, in the reign of 
James, how was the question of the validity of Presbyterian ordina- 
tion disposed of? 

115. When did the subsidies of the clergy first receive the con- 
firmation of parliament? 

116. This sanction was omitted on a remarkable occasion in 
Elizabeth's reign? 

117- What was the first step taken by the Commons to remove 
the bishops from the House of Lords? 

118. A plausible pretext was urged to obtain the consent of both 
houses to the bill for the abolition of Episqopacy ? 

119. There was one great impediment to the keeping up of the 
episcopal succession during the commonwealth ? 

120. Three expedients were proposed, in order to get over this 
difficulty? 



1842. 
Rev. Joseph Carson. 



1. What writers originated the practice of recording the history 
of the Church by centuries ? 

2. Who was the earliest ecclesiastical historian of whom we have 
any account ? 

3. The Evangelists mention but two circumstances from which 
the true date of our Lord's birth can be inferred ? 

4. What were the opinions of the Ancient Fathers respecting the 
duration of our Lord's ministry ? 

5. A remarkable sect existed among the Jews, whose character 
bore some resemblance to that of the early Christians ? 

6. What opinions were held by the Essenes relative to a future 
state ? 

7. The infidel objection, that the Christians were only a sect of 
the Essenes, is well refuted by Prideaux ? 

8. Our Lord exhibited, at an early period of his ministry, a 
marked opposition to many of the Essenian peculiarities ? 

9. How does Mosheim account for the fact, that the Evangelists 
have made no mention of the Essenes ? 

10. The ancient Fathers mention only three of the Apostles as 
having suffered martyrdom ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 399 

11. By what Roman Emperor were the Christians first per- 
secuted ? 

12. Two opposite opinions have been maintained as to the extent 
of the persecution of Nero ? 

13. What cause did the ancient historians assign for the persecu- 
tion of Domitian ? 

14. Trajan's edict against the Christians was considerably modi- 
fied by Adrian ? 

15. Various opinions have been held as to the duration of miracu- 
lous powers in the early Church ? 

16. By what argument did Middleton endeavour to disprove the 
existence of any miraculous powers beyond the times of the Apostles ? 

17. How does Mosheim expose the unfairness of this argument ? 

18. The argument was, in fact, abandoned by its author at a sub- 
sequent period ? 

19. A remarkable incident in the journey of Ignatius to Rome, 
proves that preternatural gifts were not then extinct in the Church ? 

20. What is the earliest mention of Elders in the New Testament 
history ? 

21. The Epistle to the Philippians alludes to two orders of 
ministers ? 

22. There was an essential point of difference in the primary 
constitution of the Jewish and Christian communities? 

23. In the primitive times, each Christian Church was composed 
of three orders, according to Eusebius ? 

24. The government of the Church seems to have been considered 
a subordinate function by St Paul ? 

25. What is Mosheim's theory as to the rise of Episcopacy ? 

26. This theory seems exposed to an insuperable objection? 

27. To what cause does Jerome attribute the origin of Epis- 
copacy? 

28. What was the origin of the chorepiscopi ? 

29. The fulfilment of our Lord's prophecy relative to the preser- 
vation of the Christian community during the siege of Jerusalem is 
intimated by Eusebius ? 

30. What circumstance enabled the Jews to bring about the 
death of James the Just ? 

31. What was the immediate cause of the revolt of the Jews 
under Bar-cochab ? 

32. At the period of its first promulgation Christianity had to 
encounter three antagonists ? 

33. One great elementary principle pervaded the whole religious 
systems of the East ? 



400 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

34. There were three sects of the oriental philosophers, according 
to Mosheim? 

35. A remarkable passage in the prophet Isaiah explicitly con- 
tradicts the oriental doctrine of the two principles ? 

36. What is the most probable way of accounting for the rise of 
Gnosticism, according to Dr Burton ? 

37. St Paul's Epistles to the Corinthians exhibit some remarkable 
traces of the existence of Gnostic opinions in that Church ? 

38. The Ebionites and Gnostics drew opposite and equally 
erroneous conclusions from the Mosaic dispensation ? 

39. By what invention did the Gnostics account for the origin of 
evil? 

40. Is any allusion made in the writings of the New Testament 
to the doctrines of the Docetae ? 

41. To what author does Eusebius ascribe the origin of the 
doctrine of the Millennium ? 

42. A singular passage of Irenaeus illustrates the prevailing ideas 
of the early Church on this subject ? 

43. Who was the first open opposer of this doctrine, and to what 
author did he ascribe the Apocalypse ? 

44. It was afterwards more successfully combated in the third 
century ? 

45. The adoption by Cerinthus of the Jewish notion of a Mil- 
lennium is ingeniously explained by Mosheim ? 

46. What was the Abraxas of Basilides ? 

47- Mosheim derives the opinion of Basilides concerning martyr- 
dom from another more deeply rooted error in his system % 

48. There is an apparent inconsistency in those writers who 
assert that Theodotus was the founder of the heresy which denied 
Christ to be God, (TraTtip tj}? dpvrja-ideov a7ro<TTaaia^ ? 

49. How is this inconsistency explained ? 

50. What difference existed in the opinions of Noetus and Sabellius ? 

51. What were the doctrines of Paul of Samosata? 

52. What obstacle prevented the execution of the sentence of 
deposition pronounced against Paul ? 

53. To what source do provincial Councils owe their origin ? 

54. What were the subjects of deliberation in the earliest Coun- 
cils of which we have authentic mention ? 

55. The introduction of Councils caused material changes in the 
constitution of the Church ? 

56. What was the origin of the schism of the Donatists ? 

57. Two charges were brought by the Donatist seceders against 
Csecilianus ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 401 

58. There was only one real ground of difference between the 
Donatists and their adversaries ? 

59. In what conference was the question in dispute finally 
decided ? 

60. The exertions of St Augustine were chiefly directed against 
three classes of adversaries in the Church ? 

61. What was the subject of the only recorded point of difference 
between Jerome and St Augustine? 

62. What was the first instance in the history of the Church, of 
a criminal prosecution for heresy ? 

63. On what grounds were the opinions of Jovinian and Vigi- 
lantius condemned ? 

64. The controversy carried on against Vigilantius by Jerome 
exhibits the character of the latter in a very unfavourable light? 

65. What were the errors charged against Celestius at the Coun- 
cil of Carthage ? 

66. In the first two Councils held upon the opinions of Pelagius 
he was acquitted ? 

67. What were the opinions of the Semi-Pelagians, and to whom 
are they generally attributed ? 

68. To what cause may we ascribe the little interest taken by the 
Greek Church in the Pelagian disputes ? 

69. The doctrine held by Apollinaris, as to the Incarnation, may 
be briefly expressed ? 

70. Apollinaris andNestorius adopted equally erroneous extremes? 

71. The proceedings of the Council which condemned Nestorius 
were characterized by partiality and precipitancy? 

72. The selection of Ephesus, as the place where the Council was 
to assemble, gave great advantage to the party of Cyril ? 

73. What grounds have been advanced for the opinion, that the 
controversy between Nestorius and his accusers was a dispute about 
words ? 

74. The Eutychian heresy affords no room for this confusion of 
terms ? 

75. Eutyches rejected a subtle distinction which had been ad- 
vanced by Apollinaris ? 

76. The exposition of faith decreed by the Council of Chalcedon, 
briefly condemned both the Eutychian and Nestorian errors ? 

77. What was the substance of the Henoticon of Zeno ? 

78. On what grounds were the three Chapters condemned by the 
Fifth General Council, and of what did they consist ? 

79. By whom was the Monothelite controversy originated, and 
how long did it continue ? 



402 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

80. Idolatrous usages were formally sanctioned by the decree of 
the Seventh General Council ? 

81. To what causes does Mosheim principally attribute the sub- 
stitution of the Aristotelian for the Platonic philosophy in the Church ? 

82. Justinian, the great persecutor of heresy, fell into it himself 
before his death ? 

83. In what year did the mission of Augustine to England take 
place ? 

84. It is incorrect to suppose that the Ancient Britons were in- 
volved in the error of the Quartodecimans ? 

85. What was the trinoda necessitas imposed upon the clergy in 
the reign of the Saxon kings ? 

86. At what time is it probable that the quadripartite division of 
the Church revenue was ordained ? 

87. What is the origin of the term benefice ? 

88. The nature of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and immunity was 
permanently altered by two capitularies of Charlemagne ? 

89. A characteristic regulation of the feudal system contributed 
materially to degrade the clergy, in the seventh and eighth centuries ? 

90. By whom was the title of universal Bishop first assumed ? 

91. What was the nature of the supremacy accorded to the see 
of Rome, by the Council of Chalcedon ? 

92. The decay of the metropolitan system in the seventh and 
eighth centuries may be attributed to various causes ? 

93. What method was chiefly made use of by the Popes to usurp 
the rights of the metropolitans ? 

94. The celebrated donation of Pepin to the Romish see was the 
reward of political services on the part of the Pope ? 

95. The division between the Greek and Roman Churches was 
not contemporaneous with that of the Empires ? 

96. What was the earliest recorded difference between the two 
Churches ? 

97. Where do we find the first mention made of the doctrine of 
the double procession ? 

98. In the subsequent controversy, the Greeks derived great ad- 
vantage from an error of their adversaries ? 

99. By what formal act was the separation between the two 
Churches finally consummated ? 

100. Three important controversies were carried on during the 
ninth century ? 

101. The temporal prosperity of the Church received a great 
augmentation towards the close of the tenth century, from a remark- 
able cause ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 403 

102. What was the state of religion in England on the return of 
Charles II.? 

103. The extravagances of the various religious sects naturally 
led to the spread of infidelity ? 

104. It is probable that the reconciliation of Charles II. to the 
Church of Rome took place before his restoration ? 

105. On what grounds did Stilling-fleet defend the lawfulness of 
episcopacy, in his contest with the Presbyterians ? 

106. After the Restoration, how was the difficulty obviated, of 
filling the vacant sees by a canonical election ? 

107. Who was the first Archbishop of Canterbury appointed 
after the Restoration ? 

108. The first address of the Presbyterians to Charles contained 
four preliminary requests? 

109. What was the discriminating feature of Usshers scheme of 
moderate episcopacy? 

110. What was the strongest obj ection adduced against the Liturgy 
by the Presbyterians, at the Savoy Conference ? 

111. How was it answered ? 

112. What conditions were imposed on the clergy by the Act of 
Uniformity ? 

113. One great evil resulted from the surrender, by convocation, 
of the right of the clergy to self-taxation ? 

114. When was the last Convocation held in England ? 



Burftam ffinOurtitp tifratnfaatton* 

IN 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY. 



1835. 

EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. Describe the origin and early progress of the Church at Jeru- 
salem. 

2. Give a short account of the travels of St Paul, and lay down 
upon a map the position of the principal churches which he founded 
or visited. 

3. Shew that the episcopal form of government was from the first 
established, and subsequently continued without interruption, in the 
Apostolical Churches. 

4. Mention the principal persecutions : what was their number ? 
Whence has probably arisen the difference of opinion upon this subject? 

5 Give an account of Justin Martyr's Apology. What is Justin's 
main object? and by what arguments does he support it? What 
information do we gain from that Apology respecting the political 
condition of the Christians, their religious conduct, their observance 
of public worship, and their administration of the Sacraments ? What 
changes appear to have taken place in the manner of receiving the 
Eucharist between the age of the Apostles and the time of Justin ? 

6. In what sense is the word Heresy used by the Fathers? From 
what source was the Gnostic heresy probably derived ? What were 
its peculiar tenets ? 

7. Shew, from testimonies independent of Christian writers, that 
the number of Christians rapidly increased in the first and second 
centuries. 

8. What secondary causes have been assigned, in order to account 
for this rapid growth of Christianity? Shew that those causes are 
not sufficient to have produced the effects ascribed to them. 

9. Mention some of the principal works of Tertullian. What is 
the general character of his style ? What celebrated writer of his own 
country imitated him ? Did the scholar, in this instance, surpass his 
"master"? To what sect did Tertullian attach himself? and what 
were its principal errors ? 



DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS, &C. 405 

10. Give some account of Irenaeus, Clement of Rome, and Cyprian. 

11. Trace the earliest introduction of Christianity into Britain. 
By whom was it again introduced among the Saxons, and at what time ? 

12. "What were the tenets of the Ebionites, Sabcllians, and Nova- 
tions ? 

13. What causes were likely to lead to the adoption of an ascetic- 
life, especially among eastern nations ? 

14. Give an account of the gradual rise and progress of monas- 
ticism. What were the principal orders ? What were the chief advan- 
tages and disadvantages to society arising from those institutions % 

15. "What are the principal defects in the manner in which early 
Christian writers use the Scriptures ? Wiat assistance may we derive 
from their quotations towards ascertaining the condition of the sacred 
text at the time when they wrote ? 

16. Give a character of Constantine the Great. What benefits, 
and what inconveniences were experienced by the Church in con- 
sequence of its connexion with the state 1 

17. State the facts connected with Julian's attempt to rebuild the 
Temple of Jerusalem. On whose authority do these facts rest ? Are 
the extraordinary circumstances sufficiently accounted for by natural 
causes ? What prophecies refer to this event ? 

18. What principal causes led to the separation of the Greek and 
Latin Churches ? 

19. Give a character of Louis IX. of France, and some account of 
his history. What institutions intended for the defence of religion did 
he introduce into his dominions ; and with what result ? 

20. What causes led to the Crusades ? What were the principal 
effects produced by those wars ? 



1836. 

EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. Give some account of the early apologies for the Christian 
religion. What peculiar circumstances influenced the line of argu- 
ment generally pursued by the writers of those apologies ? In what 
respects is the present state of the question between Christians and 
unbelievers different from that in the first and second centuries % 

2. Mention the principal prophecies delivered by our Lord with 
reference to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans ; and shew 
that thev were exactlv fulfilled. 



406 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

3. Give an account of the introduction of Christianity into Great 
Britain ; and of the state of the early British Church. 

4. What characteristic marks have been pointed out, by which 
true miracles may be distinguished from such as are only pretended, 
or doubtful ? 

Apply the principles of such an investigation, 

(1) To the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea. 

(2) To the history of " the Thundering Legion." 

5. State the leading tenets of the Gnostics. What reason is there 
to believe that their opinions prevailed before some parts of the New 
Testament were written ? 

6. Mention the principal persecutions to which the Christians 
were subject before the time of Constantine} stating the authorities on 
which your assertions are founded. Whence originated the notion of 
there having been exactly ten such persecutions? What different 
opinions have been entertained, and by whom, respecting the number 
of persons who suffered ? 

7. To what causes may the rapid propagation of the Christian 
religion in the first and second centuries be assigned ? Shew that the 
secondary causes are alone insufficient to account for the fact. 

8. Translate into English the following passage from Tertullian 
De Praescriptione Hsereticorum, c. 36 : — 

Age jam qui voles curiositatem . . . institutionem neminem recipit. 

(1) Give a short account of the churches here mentioned; and 
of their several founders; and state their relative geogra- 
phical position. 

What principal church is omitted in this enumeration ? 

(2) Explain the phrase "ipsse authenticae litterae." 

(3) Shew that this passage is inconsistent with the peculiar 
claims, and with the peculiar tenets of the modern Church 
of Rome : and that the foundation of faith, here appealed 
to, is the same on which the Church of England rests. 

(4) Explain the allusion to St John. 

9. Give some account of the lives and writings of 

Ignatius — Irenaeus — Origen — Cyprian — Eusebius Pamphilus. 

10. Give a short account of the Council of Nice. At what time 
and for what purpose was it convoked ? What changes were at that 
time made in the words of the Creed ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 407 

HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION. 

1. State the principal external causes which led to the Refor- 
mation : and the circumstances which prepared the minds of men for 
such a change at that period. 

2. What attempts had been made by the Church of Rome to 
remedy abuses and remove defects, in discipline and practice, before 
the Reformation % 

3. What were the principal monastic orders at the time of the 
Reformation ? AYhat were the chief benefits which Europe derived, 
during the middle ages, from those institutions? What were their 
disadvantages ? 

4. By what peculiarities of natural disposition, education, and 
moral and religious character, was Martin Luther eminently qualified 
for opposing the errors of the Church of Rome \ Illustrate your 
opinions by references to particular facts. 

5. Give a character of Pope Leo X. 

6. What were the main points of distinction in the doctrines 
maintained by Luther, Zuingle, and Calvin ? What attempts were 
made to unite all Protestant Churches ; and with what success ? 

7. Draw a comparison between the characters of Erasmus and 
Melancthon. 

8. How does it appear that the Reformation in England was 
independent of that in Germany ? To what circumstances may we 
ascribe the influence of the German reformers upon the articles of 
faith adopted in England ? Mention instances in which the effects of 
that influence may be traced. 

9. Describe the principal formularies of faith put forth in the 
time of Henry VIII. 

10. Trace the rise, progress, and decay of the order of the Jesuits. 

11. What object was proposed in appointing the "Conference at 
Hampton Court," in the reign of James I., and with what result ? 
In what manner were the principles there professed by the Non- 
conformists afterwards developed ? 

12. Give some account of Archbishop Laud. 



1837. 

EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. Give some account of the life of Eusebius, and of his character 
as an historian. What other materials besides his work do we possess 
for the history of the Church during the first three centuries ? 



408 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

2. Octo-} <yap toi>5 fxev irporepovs airavTas evpCTtjv ; 

Euseb. Lib. v. Cap. 28. 
Translate this passage. Against whose opinions is it directed ? About 
what time did its author live ? What may be learnt from it respecting 
the grounds on which at that date revealed truths were received? 
What works by the authors here mentioned are still extant ? What 
erroneous opinions respecting the nature of the Son of God are stated 
by Eusebius to have been held at different times during the first 
three centuries ? 

3. Bring together the most material information contained in 
Eusebius respecting the Canon both of the Old and New Testament. 

4. How was the Church governed during the first three centuries, 
with respect both to particular communities and the whole body of 
Christians ? 

5. What conclusions may be drawn respecting the morals of the 
Christians during this period, and on what grounds ? 

6. In what position did the Church stand with respect to the 
Roman government during this period? What arrangements were 
made by Constantine for connecting it with the State ? 

7. Give some account of the rise and decline of the Gnostic sects. 
Were any of their views adopted by persons within the Church? 
What philosophical school without the Church, and altogether hostile 
to it, obtained celebrity after their decline ? 

8. Enumerate some of the different usages of the word Tradition. 
Under what circumstances do Irenaeus and Tertullian appeal to Tra- 
dition? How does the Tradition to which they appeal differ from 
that alleged by Clement of Alexandria? In what manner and to 
what extent is the authority of Tradition recognised by the Church 
of England? 

9. For what purpose and by whose authority was the Council of 
Nicaea convened ? On what principles does its decision appear to have 
been made ? In what respect did the proceedings that followed differ 
from those which had taken place after more ancient Councils ? 



HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 

1. What was the nature of the connexion between the Church 
of the Anglo-Saxons and that of Rome ? 

2. Under what Kings of England and under what Popes did 
Wickliffe live ? To what extent did he anticipate the Reformers in 
cpiestioning the pretensions and tenets of the Church of Rome ? 

3. In what manner had the papal power been affected between 
the time of Wickliffe and the Reformation ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 409 

4. What right had Henry VIII. to throw off the supremacy of 
the Pope, and what induced him to exercise this right ? Did his 
rejection of the papal supremacy necessarily involve either a total 
separation from the Church of Rome, or any departure from its doc- 
trines ? 

5. State the progress which had been made in the English Refor- 
mation at the death of Henry VIII. 

6. At what period of Edward VI.'s reign were Articles of Religion 
drawn up, and what reasons may be assigned for the delay ? 

7. Give some account of the troubles at Francfort in the reign of 
Mary. Of what subsequent troubles were they the germ ? 

8. Shew that the consecration of Matthew Parker as Archbishop 
of Canterbury was valid. What falsehood was afterwards propagated 
on the subject? 



1838. 

1. ^YirefiaXov yovv Ttves Nik^t^i/. . ... .re K.a\ 6Toi/j.a<riav. 

Euseb. Hist. Eccles. Lib. iv. cap. 15. 

(a) Translate this passage. What appears from it to have 
been the views of the Church in those days respecting the divinity of 
Christ, the object of his death, and the honour due to saints and 
relics ? What corruptions were introduced afterwards on these points, 
and how far did the Church of Rome either reject or admit them ? 

(b) By whom is the martyrdom of Polycarp related ? Give 
some of the details. 

(c) What other authorities have we besides Eusebius for the 
history of the first three centuries ? Does his work possess any value 
independently of his own narrative % 

2. Why was Christianity persecuted, though other religions were 
tolerated by the Roman government ? Mention some of the most 
celebrated persecutions, noticing their effects on the Church, both as 
to its character internally, and its progress externally. 

3. What dispute arose between the Asiatic bishops, and Victor, 
Bishop of Rome, respecting the celebration of Easter, and what light 
does it throw on the pretensions of the see of Rome ? What con- 
clusions may be drawn upon the same point from the proceedings of 
Stephen, Bishop of Rome, at a subsequent period ? 

4. Give some account of Montanus and his pretensions. What 
ancient father became a Montanist, and how far is the value of his 
writings thereby affected ? 

18 



410 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

5. Mention the dates of the first Four General Councils, and the 
decisions for which they are most celebrated. 

6. What occasioned the admission of the Papal power into Eng- 
land, and by what political circumstances was its increase favoured ? 

7. By what previous events was the nation prepared for the 
religious changes that took place under Henry VIII.? What for- 
mularies of faith were published in his reign, and to what extent did 
they disclaim the corruptions of the Church of Rome ? 

8. What steps were taken in the reign of Henry VIII. for the 
translation and circulation of the Scriptures ? Mention the subsequent 
revisions of the English bible down to the publication of the present 
authorised version. 

9. What difficulty respecting the clerical dress arose under Ed- 
ward VI. in the case of Bishop Hooper, and how was it got over ? 
What dissensions of a similar nature took place in a subsequent reign ? 

10. State the different opinions held among the Reformers re- 
specting the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 

11. Give the dates of the opening and the close of the Council of 
Trent, and of some of the leading events in the Reformation of the 
English Church. 

12. By what act was the Church of England finally separated 
from the Church of Rome ? 



1839. 
EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, 

1. Ei'Boi/ <ydp ere 7rcu<? anqKoet Xoyoov. 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. v. 20. 
Translate this passage. By whom and to whom was it written ? 
Explain the line of argument pursued in it. How does the author in 
another place reason in a similar manner against the Gnostics ? And 
how do his arguments against the Gnostics affect some of the peculiar 
tenets of Clement of Alexandria ? 

2. Give a short account of the principal Christian Fathers of the 
first three centuries. What other authorities, besides their Works and 
the History of Eusebius, do we possess for the events of that period ? 

3. Mention some of the chief references made by Eusebius to 
Josephus, noticing the difficulties attending them. Shew that this 
Jewish writer is an important witness to the truth of Christianity. 

4. What account is given by Eusebius of the Books of the New 
Testament, and of other Works circulated among the early Christians % 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 411 

o. What was the state of the Roman law respecting the Christians 
during the greater part of the first three centuries ? By what motives 
were either the Emperors or the people impelled to persecute ? Men- 
tion some of the chief persecutions, noticing any circumstances for 
which they were remarkable. 

6. Bring examples from the first three centuries of the salutary 
effect of Christian principles on the life and character. 

7. Examine the story of the Thundering Legion, — 1st, as to the 
facts ; 2ndly, as to the notion of their being miraculous. 

8. Give an opinion respecting the time of the cessation of mira- 
culous powers. What is the purport of the extract quoted by Euse- 
bius from Irenseus on this subject? 

9. What was the form of Church government in the early 
Churches? Support your answer by evidence, and shew that it 
was considered a matter of much importance. 

10. On what occasion, after the days of the Apostles, do the first 
Ecclesiastical Councils appear to have been held ? Mention some of 
these which were held subsequently down to the Council of Nicsea, 
with the causes of their being assembled. In what respect is greater 
authority claimed for the Council of Nicsea than for any that pre- 
ceded it ? 

11. What was the subject of the Paschal controversy ? When did 
it begin, and when was it settled? What important questions are 
illustrated by it? 

12. What erroneous opinions were held during the first three cen- 
turies respecting the nature of Christ, and by whom ? What conclu- 
sions may be drawn from thence respecting the tenets of the Church ? 

13. What was the subj ect of the dispute between Cyprian, Bishop 
of Carthage, and Stephen, Bishop of Rome ? W T hat conclusions may 
be drawn from it respecting the relations of Christian Bishops with 
each other ? Mention any other events in the life of Cyprian, bear- 
ing on the same point. 

14. Give some account of the relations between Church and 
State, as arranged in the reign of Constantine. 



HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 

1. From what country does Christianity appear to have been 
first introduced into England? 

2. Give a short account of the rise of the papal power. What 
was the origin of the connexion of the Bishop of Rome with England, 



412 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

and by what circumstances was the extension of his authority there 
favoured ? 

3. Give some account of the Anglo-Saxon Church, noticing any 
points in which it differed from the Roman Church, either of that 
day, or of the present. 

4. Mention briefly the leading tenets of WieklifFe, stating where 
he agreed with, and where he differed from the English Reformers 
of Henry the Eighth's reign. 

5. Enumerate some of the chief causes which prepared the way 
for the Reformation. 

6. What led to the abolition of the papal supremacy in England ? 
How was Reformation promoted by such abolition, and how far was 
it carried in the reign of Henry VIII. ? * 

7. Give a short account of Henry the Eighth's measures for the 
suppression of Monasteries: and state whether or not he was justified, 
1st, in the act of suppression ; 2ndly, in the disposal of the revenues 
thence accruing. 

8. On what leading principles was the English Reformation con- 
ducted ? Illustrate your answer by examples. 

9. What marks of communion existed between the Churches of 
England and Rome in the early part of Queen Elizabeth's reign ? By 
what act was this communion finally broken, and what was the effect 
of this act in England ? 

10. When were objections first raised by Romanists as to the 
validity of the English Ordinations, and Iioav have they been varied 
from time to time? Show that they have all failed. 

11. By what other party, besides the Romanists, was the Church 
of England disturbed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth ? What 
were the leading principles of this party, and how was it treated by 
the authorities of the Church ? 



1840. 
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 



1. Mention the sources of the Ecclesiastical History of the first 
three centuries. 

2. Give some account of the Gnostic Sects and their tenets, 
noticing particularly any principles which were common to them all. 

3. Give some account of Montanus and his pretensions. What 
celebrated Father admitted them, and how is the value of his works 
affected by the circumstance ? 



ft* ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 413 

4. Enumerate the heretical opinions which were held during the 
first three centuries respecting the doctrine of the Trinity, stating 
whether they tend to shake or confirm it. Mention the tenets of 
Arius on this subject, and give some account of the controversy which 
they occasioned. 

5. Mention the chief general persecutions of the Christians, with 
their leading causes. How does the history of them bear either on 
the evidences or the moral influence of Christianity ? 

6. Give some account of the first four General Councils. Men- 
tion the most noted of those for which the title has been claimed since, 
down to the Council of Trent. Shew that this Council cannot truly 
be called a General Council. 

7. Give some account of the rise and progress of Monachism, men- 
tioning the most celebrated Monastic orders, with their characteristics. 

8. Shew that the Papal power is the result of human ambition, 
and not of divine command. Mention some of the different opinions 
which have been held in the Church of Rome respecting its extent. 

9. Give a short account of Augustin's mission to England, and of 
his negotiations with the British bishops. What parts of England were 
converted by him and his assistants, and what from other quarters ? 

10. Enumerate some of the causes which prepared the way for 
the Reformation. 

11. In what respects was the Reformation in England carried on 
differently from the Reformation on the Continent ? 

12. What were the views, and what the practice of Romanists 
and Reformers respecting toleration ? Illustrate your answer by his- 
torical facts. 

13. What was the effect of the Marian persecution on the Re- 
formation, either for good or for evil % 

14. Detail the measures for the Reformation of religion adopted 
in the early part of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Shew the validity of 
the consecration of Archbishop Parker. How does this question affect 
the validity of the English ordinations in general ? 

15. Give some account of the principles and conduct of the Puri- 
tans in the reign of Elizabeth. In what respect did their views accord 
with those of the Romanists ? 

16. Under what circumstances did the Hampton Court Conference 
take place ? What was its result % 



18—3 



414 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

1841. 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. Tplrov o 6to? avTu> aarefiovaav a.7r€Tpi\l/a.TO. 

Eusebius, II. 10. 

Translate this passage. 

What name is assigned by St Luke in the Acts to the person here 
spoken of, and what by Josephus ? 

t»7? oAtjs 'lovlaias. Why is the word oAt;? used? Give some 
account of Herod's previous life. 

e7rfcrTa/xei/o?. What variety of reading is there here, and how is 
the sense affected by it ? 

What charge against the fidelity of Eusebius as an historian has 
been founded on his citation of this narrative ? Give an opinion on 
the point, and also on the question of his fidelity in general. 

In what respects do the accounts of the death of Herod by St Luke 
and Josephus differ, and in what do they agree ? Is there any mate- 
rial discrepancy between them ? 

What questions have arisen respecting passages quoted by Euse- 
bius from Josephus respecting John the Baptist, Jesus Christ, and 
James the Just ? Give an opinion on the disputed points. Independ- 
ently of these questions, what important testimony is borne by Jose- 
phus to the truth of Christianity ? 

Give a short account of Josephus. 

2. Give a short account of the life and writings of the Apostolical 
Fathers, noticing any disputed points respecting them. 

3. State the substance of the information furnished by Eusebius 
respecting the Canon of Scripture. 

4. Notice shortly the chief persecutions of the Christians, men- 
tioning the causes in which each originated. What was the position 
of the Christians with regard to the Roman government during the 
cessation of persecution for the greater part of the first three centuries ? 

5. State the leading tenets of the Gnostics, distinguishing the later 
from the earlier Gnostics, and the Alexandrian from the Syrian school. 
Do any of their opinions appear in any degree to have crept into the 
Church? 

6. Give some" account of Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of 
Alexandria, Tertullian, and Cyprian. How do Irengeus and Clement 
of Alexandria differ from each other respecting tradition ? 

7. Describe briefly the proceedings against Paul of Samosata. 
What were his peculiar tenets? Who are said to have held the 
same before him? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 415 

8. Who was Alius, and what were his peculiar tenets ? Mention 
some of the Councils held on the subject, whether general or not. 
What conclusions respecting the faith of the Church may be drawn 
from the early controversies on the nature of Christ? 

9. On what principles was a connexion formed between Church 
and State in the reign of Constantine? 

10. What was the position of the Bishop of Rome in the reign of 
Constantine ? Mention some of the chief causes and events by which 
his power was subsequently either increased or diminished. Trace 
particularly the rise and decline of his power in England. How does 
an historical inquiry of this nature affect his claim to supremacy by 
divine right ? 

11. Give a brief account of the origin of Monasticism. Notice 
shortly the chief religious orders in the Western Churches. 

12. What was the state of Christianity in the British islands at 
the landing of Augustin? When was the authority of the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury first acknowledged throughout England ? What 
celebrated conference preceded that acknowledgment, and what was 
the issue of this conference ? 

13. What was the brightest period of the Anglo-Saxon Church ? 
Mention some of the learned men who flourished during this period. 
What great ecclesiastical changes were introduced in the time of 
Dunstan ? 

14. State the tenets of the Anglo-Saxon Church respecting the 
Eucharist and the worship of images, mentioning whether or not they 
are the same which are now held by the Church of Rome. 

15. Give a short account of the statutes of Provisors aud Praemu- 
nire, and of the abuses they were designed to correct. What unjust 
use was made of them by Henry VIII. ? 

16. Mention some of the leading points in the teaching of WicklifFe 
What impression do his doctrines appear to have made on the nation ? 

17- Give a short account of the suppression of monasteries by 
Henry VIII. Discuss the policy and the justice of the measure. 

18. What formularies of faith were published in the reign of 
Henry VIII. ? Mention points in which their doctrines differed from 
the received doctrines of the Church of Rome. 

19. Mention some of the chief measures of Edward VI. : 1st, for 
the Reformation of the Public Worship ; 2ndly, for the Reformation 
of Doctrine. 



416 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

1842. 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. What are the earliest authorities for Ecclesiastical History, 
next to the writings of the New Testament ? 

2. Who is the earliest of the Latin Fathers, and what Greek 
Fathers preceded him ? 

3. Lay down some principles for estimating the works of the 
Fathers. 

4. Give some account of Eusebius. Point out the value and the 
defects of his History. 

5. Give an account of the Paschal Controversy. What may be 
learnt from it respecting uniformity of rites and ceremonies, the power 
of the Bishop of Rome, the value of Apostolical Tradition, aud ad- 
herence to Apostolical usage ? 

6. What were the pretensions of Montanus, and what were the 
leading characteristics of his followers ? 

7. What controversies arose in the time of Cyprian respecting 
heretical baptism, and the reconciliation of apostates ? What part did 
this Father take in them, and to whom was he opposed? How were 
these questions eventually settled ? 

8. Give some account of the ancient usages respecting the election 
and consecration of Bishops. How came Princes to interpose in the 
matter? What was the nature of the dispute between Gregory VII. 
and the Emperor respecting investitures ? How was it settled ? 

9. Give a brief account of the origin of the British and of the 
Anglo-Saxon Church. 

10. Relate briefly the dispute between Henry II. and Thomas 
a Becket. What principles were involved in it ? 

11. Defend the right of Henry VIII. to abolish the Papal Supre- 
macy in England. How did this abolition affect the question of 
Ecclesiastical Reformation ? 

12. What was the conduct of the English Reformers and the 
English Romanists with regard to persecution? 

13. What judgment was passed by the Romanists in the reign 
of Mary, on the 42 Articles of Religion published in the reign of 
Edward VI. ? How was this judgment illustrated by their treatment 
of the English Reformers ? 

14. Mention some of the leading characteristics of the Puritans. 
In what respects did they bear any resemblance to the Romanists ? 

15. When were the Lambeth Articles framed, and with what 
object ? Are they of any authority in the Church of England ? 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 417 

1843. 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. K.a.Tu\nr(av yap o Xa/jarpos outo? Tt]v eKKXrjaiav Xeyei. 

Eus. Lib. vi. cap. 43. Translate. 

By whom were these extracts written, and to whom addressed ? 
Who is the person attacked in them ? Under what circumstances had 
he left the Church, and what were his peculiar tenets? How long 
did the schism caused by him continue, and in what estimation were 
his followers held ? Who were the most eminent bishops at this time, 
and what part did they take in the dispute ? 

Tov eVt kXlv?] hid vocrov TrepL-^ydivTa. Explain this phrase. On 
what grounds was it an impediment to ordination ? Distinguish be- 
tween the nomination and the ordination of the Clergy. What was 
the practice of the early Churches with regard to the nomination of 
Bishops and Presbyters, and with regard to their ordination ? What 
other church officers besides Bishops and Presbyters are mentioned 
in the letter containing the above extracts ? 

What inferences may be drawn from the second extract respecting 
either the mode of administering the Lord's Supper, or the doctrine 
held concerning it ? What other information relating to this Sacra- 
ment is found in Eusebius' History ? 

Give an opinion respecting Eusebius' fidelity and judgment as an 
historian, both in relating facts, and making citations. 

2. Mention the chief authorities besides Eusebius for the early 
History of the Church. 

3. Give a brief account of Justin Martyr, Irenseus, and Tertullian 

4. What works by divines of the Alexandrian school are still 
extant ? What were the chief peculiarities of this school ? What was 
its influence either on Christianity, or on Heathen Philosophy ? 

5. What was the nature of the controversy in the third century 
respecting heretical baptism? How were the Churches divided on 
the question? What passed on the subject between Cyprian and the 
Bishop of Rome ? What appear to have been Cyprian's views, both 
as to the constitution of each particular Church, and as to the relation 
of the several Churches to each other ? 

6. Mention briefly the miracles related by Eusebius, as having 
occurred subsequently to the Apostolic age. Discuss in particular the 
story of the Thundering Legion. 

7. When was the last great persecution of the Christians? Where 
was it most, and where least severe ? How was it terminated? 



$18- DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 

8. What changes are observable in Constantine's treatment of 
Christianity and Heathenism in the progress of his reign ? On what 
principles was a connexion arranged in his time between Church and 
State? 

9. What was the position of the Bishop of Rome with reference 
both to the Church and the State in the time of Constantine? and 
what was it with reference to the same, in the several times of Gre- 
gory I.j Gregory VII., Innocent III., Boniface VIII.? State the 
principles laid down respectively by Gregory I. and Boniface VIII. 
concerning the constitution of the Church. 

10. During what period was the Papal power at its height? 
Mention some of the causes of its decline. 

11. When was Monachism introduced into the Church? What 
new character was given it in the West by Benedict of Nursia? 
When were the Military and Mendicant Orders respectively founded? 
In what points did each of these differ in their avowed objects from 
the older monastic establishments? 

12. What appears to have been the position of the British Churches 
when Augustine arrived in England ? What parts of England were 
converted by him and his followers, and from what quarter did the 
rest of the country receive the Gospel? What ritual differences 
impeded the union of the whole? Whence were these differences 
derived, and when and by what authority were they removed ? 

13. What were the tenets of the Anglo-Saxon divines respecting 
Purgatory, and the Lord's Supper ? 

14. What were the relations between Church and State in the 
Anglo-Saxon period ? 

15. Describe the various modes by which the Bishop of Rome 
obtained a revenue from England, stating how they were introduced, 
restrained, and abolished. 

16. Give some account of the opinions of Wickliffe, distinguishing 
the sound from the unsound. 

17- Show that the Church in the 15th century was acknowledged 
to require reformation. Mention causes wdiich at that time tended 
either to promote or prevent reformation. What attempts to effect 
it were made during the 15 th century ? 

18. What led Henry VIII. to take part in the reformation of the 
Church? and what was accomplished in his reign towards the re- 
formation of the Church of England? 

19. When did the Council of Trent first assemble, and when did 
it finally separate ? During what time was it actually sitting ? Men- 
tion some of its earliest, and some of its latest decrees. 



IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 419 

20. Describe the measures adopted by Queen Mary for reconciling 
the Churches of England and Rome. 

21. In what position did the Churches of England and Rome 
stand to each other during the early years of Queen Elizabeth's reign? 
What act caused their final separation ? 

22. What gave rise to the Conferences at Hampton Court and at 
the Savoy respectively, and what was the issue of each ? 



1844. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

1. Describe briefly the authorities for the history of the early 
Churches ? 

2. What was the constitution of these Churches, and how were 
they connected with each other ? Illustrate your answer by examples. 

3. Give a short account of the Apostolical Fathers and their writ- 
ings; also of Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, and their 
writings. 

4. Describe briefly the origin of Councils, and mention some of 
the earliest. Under what circumstances and by whom was the first 
General Council assembled ? Name the other General Councils whose 
decisions are received in the Church of England, and give a short 
account of each. Enumerate different opinions which have been 
held respecting the authority of General Councils. What judgment 
has been given on this point by the Church of England ? 

5. Mention the chief errors respecting the Word and the Holy 
Spirit which were circulated during the first four centuries. Were 
any of them revived at the period of the Reformation, and by whom ? 

6. What was the state of Christianity in the British Islands at 
the time of the mission of Augustine ? By whom was the conversion 
of the Anglo-Saxons chiefly effected ? What differences in religious 
observances existed for some time after the conversion, and when and 
under what circumstances were they removed ? 

7. What was the nature of the Papal authority during the Anglo- 
Saxon period ? What circumstances under the Norman Kings favoured 
its extension ? 

8. Distinguish between the secular and regular clergy? When 
did the mendicant orders take their rise ? How did they differ from 



420 DURHAM UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS, &C. 

the more ancient orders ? Name some of the monastic orders which 
have "been founded since the Reformation. 

9. State some of the consequences of the monastic system both for 
evil and for good. 

10. Show that Henry VIII. had good grounds for abolishing the 
Papal supremacy in England. Detail his measures for effecting the 
abolition, stating whether or not they were justifiable. 

11. When and by whom was communion between the Churches 
of England and Rome finally broken ? 



THE END. 



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